CLEP Information Systems key terms

A cell address written with dollar signs, such as $B$4, that stays fixed when a formula is copied to another cell, unlike a relative reference which shifts position.

A cell address like B4 that adjusts automatically when a formula is copied or filled into new rows or columns, so it points to a correspondingly shifted cell.

An instruction entered in a spreadsheet cell that begins with an equals sign and computes a value from constants, cell addresses, and built-in functions.

A predefined calculation built into spreadsheet or programming software, such as SUM or AVERAGE, that takes arguments and returns a result.

A value, cell reference, or text string supplied to a function or procedure so it can perform its calculation or action.

A word processor setting that automatically moves text to the next line when the current line is full, without the user pressing Enter.

A word processing feature that combines one main document with a data source of records to produce many personalized copies, such as letters addressed to different people.

A preformatted document or file with preset layout, styles, and boilerplate content that serves as a starting point for new documents.

A stored sequence of recorded commands or keystrokes that can be replayed with one action to automate repetitive work in an application.

A template layer in presentation software that controls fonts, colors, and placeholder positions for all slides based on it, so edits propagate consistently.

Uniform Resource Locator; the address that identifies a resource on the web, including its protocol, server name, and path, such as https://example.com/page.

Domain Name System; a distributed naming service that translates human-readable hostnames like example.com into numeric IP addresses computers use to route traffic.

Hypertext Transfer Protocol; the request-response rules browsers and servers use to exchange web pages and other resources, often secured as HTTPS.

A small text file a website stores on a visitor's browser to remember state such as login sessions or preferences across separate page requests.

A special symbol or keyword, such as quotation marks for exact phrases or site: to limit results to one domain, that refines a search engine query.

An automated program that follows links across the web and downloads pages so a search engine can index their content for later retrieval.

Hardware or software that inspects network traffic and permits or blocks packets according to rules, separating a trusted network from untrusted ones.

A social engineering attack that impersonates a trusted party through email, text, or fake sites to trick people into revealing credentials or clicking malicious links.

The process of transforming readable data into ciphertext using an algorithm and key so that only parties holding the correct key can recover the original.

A cipher method in which the same secret key both encrypts and decrypts data, making key distribution the main practical challenge.

An encryption scheme using a matched key pair: a public key that others use to encrypt or verify, and a private key kept secret to decrypt or sign.

A file signed by a certificate authority that binds a public key to an identity, letting parties verify who owns the key.

Any software written to harm or exploit a system, including viruses, worms, trojans, ransomware, and spyware.

A program that scans files and running processes for known malicious patterns or suspicious behavior and quarantines what it detects.

Manipulating people through deception or pressure, rather than technical exploits, to obtain confidential information or access.

Central Processing Unit; the chip that fetches, decodes, and executes program instructions, containing an arithmetic logic unit and control circuitry.

Random Access Memory; volatile working memory that holds running programs and data, losing its contents when power is removed.

A small, fast memory between the CPU and main memory that stores recently used instructions and data to reduce access time.

Solid State Drive; storage built from flash memory chips with no moving parts, offering faster access and greater shock resistance than a hard disk.

Redundant Array of Independent Disks; a configuration that spreads or mirrors data across drives to improve performance, fault tolerance, or both.

A software-defined computer that runs its own operating system on emulated hardware provided by a hypervisor on a physical host.

Software that creates and runs virtual machines, allocating physical CPU, memory, and storage resources among guests.

Delivering computing resources such as servers, storage, and applications over a network on demand, billed by usage and managed by a provider.

A translator that converts an entire source program into machine code or another target language before execution, reporting errors for the whole file.

A translator that reads and executes source code statement by statement at run time instead of producing a separate executable file.

The human-readable program text written by a developer in a programming language, which must be translated before the computer can run it.

Systems Development Life Cycle; the staged process of planning, analyzing, designing, building, testing, and maintaining an information system.

Building a working model of a system early so users can react to it, then refining or discarding the model before full development.

Testing individual components or functions in isolation to confirm each behaves as specified before they are combined.

A column or set of columns whose values uniquely identify each row in a table and cannot be null.

A column in one table that references the primary key of another table, enforcing a relationship between their rows.

A collection of data organized into tables of rows and columns that can be linked through shared key values and queried with SQL.

Structured Query Language; the standard language for defining, querying, and modifying data in relational databases.

A SQL operation that combines rows from two or more tables based on matching values in related columns.

A database rule ensuring that every foreign key value matches an existing primary key value, preventing orphaned records.

Organizing tables to reduce duplicated data and update anomalies by placing each fact in one place and linking tables by keys.

Legally protected creations of the mind, such as inventions, writings, and designs, covered by patents, copyright, and trademarks.

The exclusive legal right of an author to control copying, distribution, and adaptation of an original work for a limited term.

The status of works whose copyright has expired or been waived, allowing anyone to use them freely without permission.

A legal license that grants permission to use, modify, and redistribute software's source code, usually subject to conditions such as attribution.

Copying, distributing, or using software without a valid license or in ways the license does not permit.

The gap between groups that have reliable access to computers, broadband, and digital skills and those that do not.

The principle that internet providers should treat all traffic equally, without blocking or slowing content or charging for priority.