CLEP Introduction to Educational Psychology key terms

A learning process in which a neutral stimulus comes to trigger a reflexive response after being paired repeatedly with a stimulus that already produces that response naturally.

Learning in which the likelihood of a voluntary behavior changes because of the consequences that follow it, such as rewards, punishments, or removal of unpleasant events.

Any consequence that increases the future frequency of the behavior it follows; it may add a desirable stimulus or remove an aversive one.

A consequence that decreases the future frequency of the behavior it follows, either by adding something unpleasant or by taking away something desirable.

The gradual weakening and disappearance of a learned response when the reinforcement or conditioned pairing that maintained it is no longer delivered.

Acquiring new behaviors by watching others and noting the consequences they experience, then reproducing the behavior oneself.

Demonstrating a skill or behavior so that a learner can imitate it; effective models are credible, similar to the learner, and shown receiving valued outcomes.

The limited-capacity system that briefly holds and manipulates information during thinking, problem solving, and comprehension; its constraints shape how much new material a learner can handle at once.

The amount of mental effort imposed on working memory by a task; instruction that overloads it impedes learning, while well-managed load supports it.

Grouping separate pieces of information into larger meaningful units so that more can be held in working memory at once.

The initial process of transforming sensory information into a form the memory system can store and later retrieve.

The process of accessing stored information and bringing it back into conscious use; practice at retrieval strengthens memory more than repeated rereading.

A memory strategy that links new information to existing knowledge through meaning, examples, or associations, producing deeper and more durable learning than rote repetition.

The finding that information studied across several separated sessions is remembered better than the same total study time massed into one session.

Applying knowledge or skills learned in one situation to a new context; it may be near, involving similar tasks, or far, involving dissimilar ones.

Awareness and regulation of one's own thinking, including planning how to approach a task, monitoring comprehension, and adjusting strategies when understanding fails.

Temporary support a teacher or more capable peer provides so a learner can complete a task beyond current ability, with support gradually withdrawn as competence grows.

The range of tasks a learner cannot yet do alone but can accomplish with guidance from a more knowledgeable person; instruction is most productive within this range.

A sequence of four stages, sensorimotor through formal operational, describing qualitatively different ways children reason, with movement to a new stage requiring maturation and experience.

The understanding that quantities such as number, mass, or volume stay the same despite changes in appearance or arrangement; typically achieved in Piaget's concrete operational stage.

An organized mental framework of knowledge about a topic or event that guides how new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled.

Interpreting new experience using an existing mental framework without changing that framework.

Revising or creating a mental framework because new information does not fit existing understanding.

A lifespan theory proposing that individuals face a series of social-emotional crises, such as industry versus inferiority in middle childhood, whose resolution shapes later development.

A stage theory of moral reasoning moving from obedience to avoid punishment, through conformity to social expectations, toward abstract principles of justice.

A person's belief about whether they can successfully perform a specific task; strong beliefs encourage effort, persistence, and willingness to attempt challenges.

Engaging in an activity because it is interesting, enjoyable, or personally satisfying, rather than for an external reward or to avoid a penalty.

Engaging in an activity to obtain an external outcome such as a grade, praise, or reward, or to avoid punishment.

The ability to set goals, monitor one's own behavior and progress, delay gratification, and adjust strategies in order to reach a goal.

The strategies teachers use to establish orderly routines, prevent disruption, maintain engagement, and respond to behavior so that instruction can proceed.

A proactive approach that teaches and reinforces appropriate behavior, arranges the environment to prevent problems, and uses consequences consistently rather than relying on punishment.

Adjusting content, process, or product to match learners' readiness, interests, and learning profiles while keeping shared learning goals.

Ongoing checks of understanding used during instruction to inform teaching decisions and give learners feedback, rather than to assign a final grade.

Evaluation conducted at the end of a unit or course to judge achievement against standards, typically for grading or accountability purposes.

The extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure and supports the interpretations and decisions made from its scores.

The consistency of a test's scores across repeated administrations, parallel forms, or different raters; it is necessary but not sufficient for validity.

A precise statement of how a variable will be observed or measured, such as defining on-task behavior as eyes on materials for a set interval.