Junkao English key terms

A habitual pairing of words that native speakers consider natural, such as 'make a decision' or 'heavy rain'. Choosing the right partner word matters more than grammatical correctness in usage questions.

The level of formality a word or phrase suits, ranging from casual speech to academic prose. Using a word in the wrong register makes writing sound odd even when the grammar is correct.

The emotional or evaluative shading a word carries beyond its literal meaning, such as the difference between 'thrifty' and 'stingy'. Synonym questions often turn on this shading rather than dictionary sense.

The core, literal meaning of a word as listed in a dictionary, apart from any emotional coloring. Distinguishing it from connotation is the first step in choosing between near-synonyms.

A verb combined with a particle or preposition that produces a new meaning, such as 'give up' or 'put off'. The particle cannot be guessed from the verb alone, so these must be memorized in context.

A fixed expression whose meaning cannot be worked out from its individual words, such as 'break the ice'. Idioms resist literal translation, which makes them a frequent trap in translation tasks.

A bound morpheme attached to a root to change meaning or word class, including prefixes like 'un-' and suffixes like '-ness'. Recognizing affixes lets you infer unfamiliar words during reading.

A group of words sharing one root but differing in affixes and part of speech, such as 'create, creative, creation, creativity'. Knowing the family helps you fill gaps requiring a specific form.

A word close in meaning to another, though rarely identical in use, register, or collocation. Exam synonym questions usually require picking the option that fits the sentence, not merely the closest dictionary match.

A word expressing the opposite of another, such as 'scarce' versus 'abundant'. Some pairs are gradable while others are absolute, and this affects which one fits a given context.

Information in surrounding text, such as a definition, example, contrast, or cause-effect link, that lets a reader infer an unknown word's meaning. Using these clues is faster than guessing from word shape alone.

The rule that a verb must match its subject in number and person, as in 'the list of items is long'. Intervening phrases and inverted word order are the usual sources of error.

Keeping verb tenses logically aligned within a sentence or passage unless a genuine time shift requires a change. Unmotivated switching between past and present is a standard error-hunting target.

A verb form expressing hypothetical, wished-for, or demanded situations, as in 'If I were you' or 'It is essential that he be present'. It appears after certain verbs of demand and in unreal conditionals.

A sentence with an if-clause and a result clause, classified as zero, first, second, or third conditional according to reality and time. The tense pairing in each type is fixed.

A clause introduced by a relative pronoun such as 'who', 'which', or 'that' that modifies a noun. Restrictive clauses are not set off by commas; non-restrictive ones are.

The noun or noun phrase that a pronoun or relative pronoun refers back to. Ambiguous antecedents, where two nouns could be the referent, are a common clarity problem in writing.

Placing the auxiliary or verb before the subject, as after negative adverbials ('Never have I seen...') or in conditional omission ('Had I known...'). It signals emphasis or formality.

A verb form used adjectivally or in compound tenses, either present ('-ing') or past ('-ed', irregular). Dangling participles, where the implied subject does not match the main clause, are a frequent error.

A singular noun naming a group, such as 'team' or 'committee'. It takes a singular verb when the group acts as one unit and a plural verb when members act individually.

A noun that can be counted and therefore takes plural forms and articles, such as 'chair' or 'idea'. Uncountable nouns like 'advice' and 'information' do not take a plural '-s'.

The choice among 'a', 'an', 'the', and no article, governed by whether the referent is specific, already mentioned, or unique. Generic statements and abstract nouns often require zero article.

Conveying someone's words indirectly, which usually shifts tense back, adjusts pronouns, and changes time and place words. Failing to backshift after a past reporting verb is a classic error.

A helping verb such as 'can', 'must', 'should', or 'might' that expresses ability, obligation, permission, or probability. Each modal carries a distinct strength of certainty or duty.

The central point a passage is built to convey, usually stated or implied in the opening or closing sentences. Distractors often capture a supporting detail rather than the overall claim.

The sentence, usually first in a paragraph, that announces what the paragraph will develop. Locating topic sentences quickly maps the structure of an unseen passage.

A conclusion drawn from evidence in the text rather than stated outright. Valid inferences must be supported by specific wording, not by general knowledge or personal opinion.

The stance a writer takes toward the subject, such as critical, cautious, or approving. Attitude questions require attention to evaluative adjectives and hedges rather than to factual content.

The emotional quality of the writing itself, whether ironic, solemn, playful, or urgent. Tone is signaled by word choice and sentence rhythm, and it may differ from the author's attitude.

The way sentences and paragraphs are linked through pronouns, repetition, and transition words so the text reads as one piece. Cohesion questions ask which connector or referent best fits.

A connector such as 'however', 'therefore', or 'meanwhile' that signals the logical relation between ideas. Choosing one requires identifying whether the relation is contrast, cause, addition, or sequence.

A text with words removed at intervals, to be restored from grammar and context. Successful completion depends on reading the whole passage first to establish topic and tense.

Rendering text word for word while preserving source syntax, which often produces unnatural target language. It is acceptable for technical terms but usually fails for idioms and fixed phrases.

A translation strategy that adapts the text to target-culture norms and reads fluently, minimizing foreign flavor. It contrasts with foreignization, which deliberately preserves source-culture markers.

A justified change in word class, sentence order, or clause structure made because the target language requires it. Shifts are not errors; they are evidence of competent restructuring.

A single sentence stating the central argument of an essay and previewing how it will be supported. It usually appears at the end of the introduction and governs every later paragraph.

The quality of a paragraph in which every sentence supports one controlling idea. Sentences drifting to a new topic should be cut or moved, and exam prompts often ask you to spot them.