CTMA cheat sheet

Technology S-curve: performance improves slowly at first, accelerates during the growth phase, then flattens as the technology approaches its physical limit; a new technology often starts below the incumbent on performance but crosses over once its own S-curve steepens.

Technology life cycle stages: R&D/emerging, growth, maturity, decline; competitive emphasis shifts from technical differentiation to cost and process efficiency as the technology matures.

Sustaining vs. disruptive innovation: sustaining innovations improve performance along the trajectory established by incumbents; disruptive innovations initially underperform on mainstream metrics but win on simplicity, cost, or new-market access.

Radical vs. incremental innovation: radical changes the core technology and opens new performance trajectories; incremental refines existing designs and is the dominant form of innovation in mature firms.

Open innovation: firms commercialize both internal and external ideas and use internal and external paths to market; contrast with closed innovation, which relies on internal R&D and internal commercialization.

Make-vs-buy for technology: internal development suits core capabilities and tacit knowledge; licensing, alliances, and acquisitions suit non-core or fast-moving technologies where time-to-market dominates.

Technology portfolio evaluation uses criteria such as strategic fit, technical feasibility, time to market, IP position, and expected net present value; score each project against weighted criteria rather than ranking on a single metric.

Absorptive capacity: a firm's ability to recognize the value of new external knowledge and apply it depends on prior related knowledge and internal R&D investment; R&D spending is both a generator of invention and a gatekeeper for external learning.

Little's Law: Work-in-process = throughput rate × flow time (WIP = R × T); holds for any stable system and lets you solve for any one variable given the other two.

Capacity utilization = actual output ÷ maximum possible output; effective capacity accounts for planned downtime and is always ≤ design capacity.

Bottleneck rule: system throughput equals the throughput of the constraint; non-bottleneck improvement does not raise total output unless it relieves the constraint.

EOQ = √(2DS/H), where D = annual demand, S = ordering cost per order, H = annual holding cost per unit; total cost is minimized where ordering cost equals holding cost.

Reorder point = demand during lead time + safety stock; safety stock rises with service level, demand variability, and lead-time variability.

Six Sigma quality: a process is at six sigma when specification limits are six standard deviations from the mean, giving roughly 3.4 defects per million opportunities when a 1.5-sigma long-term shift is assumed.

Lean principles: specify value, map the value stream, create flow, pull from customer demand, and pursue perfection; the eight wastes are defects, overproduction, waiting, non-utilized talent, transportation, inventory, motion, and excess processing.

Theory of Constraints five focusing steps: identify the constraint, exploit it, subordinate everything else to it, elevate it, then repeat once the constraint moves.

Aggregate planning trade-offs: chase strategy varies workforce and matches demand, level strategy holds a constant workforce and builds or depletes inventory, and mixed strategies combine the two.

Ohm's law: V = I × R; power P = V × I = I²R = V²/R; applies to resistive DC circuits and to instantaneous AC values.

Three-phase power: P = √3 × V_L × I_L × power factor for a balanced load, where V_L and I_L are line-to-line voltage and line current.

Stress = force ÷ cross-sectional area; strain = change in length ÷ original length; Young's modulus E = stress ÷ strain in the elastic (linear) region.

Factor of safety = material strength (yield or ultimate) ÷ applied working stress; a value greater than 1 indicates the design load is below the failure threshold.

Thermal expansion: ΔL = α × L × ΔT, where α is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion; constrained expansion generates thermal stress E × α × ΔT.

Basic thermodynamics: first law, energy is conserved (Q − W = ΔU for a closed system); second law, entropy of an isolated system never decreases and no heat engine can exceed Carnot efficiency 1 − T_cold/T_hot.

Gear and pulley ratios: ratio = driven teeth ÷ driving teeth = N_out ÷ N_in; torque multiplies by the ratio while speed divides by it, and power is unchanged apart from losses.

Tolerance stack-up: worst-case (arithmetic) sum adds all tolerances directly; statistical (root-sum-square) stack-up assumes independent random variations and gives a smaller, less conservative total.

Signal sampling: the Nyquist criterion requires a sampling rate greater than twice the highest signal frequency to avoid aliasing.

Tuckman team stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning; conflict peaks in storming and is resolved by clarifying roles and goals rather than by suppression.

Situational leadership: leader style (directing, coaching, supporting, delegating) is matched to follower readiness or development level; there is no single best style.

Expectancy theory: motivation = expectancy × instrumentality × valence; a zero in any factor yields zero motivation, so leaders must make each link credible.

SMART goals: specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, time-bound; measurable and time-bound criteria make goals verifiable and enable feedback.

Herzberg two-factor theory: hygiene factors (pay, policy, working conditions) prevent dissatisfaction but do not motivate; motivators (achievement, recognition, responsibility, growth) drive satisfaction.

Maslow hierarchy: physiological, safety, social, esteem, self-actualization; lower needs are typically addressed before higher ones, though the ordering is not rigid.

Conflict modes (Thomas–Kilmann): competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, accommodating; collaborating works best when both the issue and the relationship matter and time permits.

Change management (Kotter): create urgency, form a coalition, build a vision, communicate it, remove obstacles, generate short-term wins, consolidate gains, and anchor changes in culture.

Span of control and delegation: a narrow span suits complex, high-risk work; effective delegation assigns authority with accountability and defines the decision rights up front.

Technology S-curve: performance improves slowly at first, accelerates during the growth phase, then flattens as the technology approaches its physical limit; a new technology often starts below the incumbent on performance but crosses over once its own S-curve steepens.

Technology life cycle stages: R&D/emerging, growth, maturity, decline; competitive emphasis shifts from technical differentiation to cost and process efficiency as the technology matures.

Sustaining vs. disruptive innovation: sustaining innovations improve performance along the trajectory established by incumbents; disruptive innovations initially underperform on mainstream metrics but win on simplicity, cost, or new-market access.

Radical vs. incremental innovation: radical changes the core technology and opens new performance trajectories; incremental refines existing designs and is the dominant form of innovation in mature firms.

Open innovation: firms commercialize both internal and external ideas and use internal and external paths to market; contrast with closed innovation, which relies on internal R&D and internal commercialization.

Make-vs-buy for technology: internal development suits core capabilities and tacit knowledge; licensing, alliances, and acquisitions suit non-core or fast-moving technologies where time-to-market dominates.

Technology portfolio evaluation uses criteria such as strategic fit, technical feasibility, time to market, IP position, and expected net present value; score each project against weighted criteria rather than ranking on a single metric.

Absorptive capacity: a firm's ability to recognize the value of new external knowledge and apply it depends on prior related knowledge and internal R&D investment; R&D spending is both a generator of invention and a gatekeeper for external learning.

Little's Law: Work-in-process = throughput rate × flow time (WIP = R × T); holds for any stable system and lets you solve for any one variable given the other two.

Capacity utilization = actual output ÷ maximum possible output; effective capacity accounts for planned downtime and is always ≤ design capacity.

Bottleneck rule: system throughput equals the throughput of the constraint; non-bottleneck improvement does not raise total output unless it relieves the constraint.

EOQ = √(2DS/H), where D = annual demand, S = ordering cost per order, H = annual holding cost per unit; total cost is minimized where ordering cost equals holding cost.

Reorder point = demand during lead time + safety stock; safety stock rises with service level, demand variability, and lead-time variability.

Six Sigma quality: a process is at six sigma when specification limits are six standard deviations from the mean, giving roughly 3.4 defects per million opportunities when a 1.5-sigma long-term shift is assumed.

Lean principles: specify value, map the value stream, create flow, pull from customer demand, and pursue perfection; the eight wastes are defects, overproduction, waiting, non-utilized talent, transportation, inventory, motion, and excess processing.

Theory of Constraints five focusing steps: identify the constraint, exploit it, subordinate everything else to it, elevate it, then repeat once the constraint moves.

Aggregate planning trade-offs: chase strategy varies workforce and matches demand, level strategy holds a constant workforce and builds or depletes inventory, and mixed strategies combine the two.

Ohm's law: V = I × R; power P = V × I = I²R = V²/R; applies to resistive DC circuits and to instantaneous AC values.

Three-phase power: P = √3 × V_L × I_L × power factor for a balanced load, where V_L and I_L are line-to-line voltage and line current.

Stress = force ÷ cross-sectional area; strain = change in length ÷ original length; Young's modulus E = stress ÷ strain in the elastic (linear) region.

Factor of safety = material strength (yield or ultimate) ÷ applied working stress; a value greater than 1 indicates the design load is below the failure threshold.

Thermal expansion: ΔL = α × L × ΔT, where α is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion; constrained expansion generates thermal stress E × α × ΔT.

Basic thermodynamics: first law, energy is conserved (Q − W = ΔU for a closed system); second law, entropy of an isolated system never decreases and no heat engine can exceed Carnot efficiency 1 − T_cold/T_hot.

Gear and pulley ratios: ratio = driven teeth ÷ driving teeth = N_out ÷ N_in; torque multiplies by the ratio while speed divides by it, and power is unchanged apart from losses.

Tolerance stack-up: worst-case (arithmetic) sum adds all tolerances directly; statistical (root-sum-square) stack-up assumes independent random variations and gives a smaller, less conservative total.

Signal sampling: the Nyquist criterion requires a sampling rate greater than twice the highest signal frequency to avoid aliasing.

Tuckman team stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning; conflict peaks in storming and is resolved by clarifying roles and goals rather than by suppression.

Situational leadership: leader style (directing, coaching, supporting, delegating) is matched to follower readiness or development level; there is no single best style.

Expectancy theory: motivation = expectancy × instrumentality × valence; a zero in any factor yields zero motivation, so leaders must make each link credible.

SMART goals: specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, time-bound; measurable and time-bound criteria make goals verifiable and enable feedback.

Herzberg two-factor theory: hygiene factors (pay, policy, working conditions) prevent dissatisfaction but do not motivate; motivators (achievement, recognition, responsibility, growth) drive satisfaction.

Maslow hierarchy: physiological, safety, social, esteem, self-actualization; lower needs are typically addressed before higher ones, though the ordering is not rigid.

Conflict modes (Thomas–Kilmann): competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, accommodating; collaborating works best when both the issue and the relationship matter and time permits.

Change management (Kotter): create urgency, form a coalition, build a vision, communicate it, remove obstacles, generate short-term wins, consolidate gains, and anchor changes in culture.

Span of control and delegation: a narrow span suits complex, high-risk work; effective delegation assigns authority with accountability and defines the decision rights up front.

Technology S-curve: performance improves slowly at first, accelerates during the growth phase, then flattens as the technology approaches its physical limit; a new technology often starts below the incumbent on performance but crosses over once its own S-curve steepens.

Technology life cycle stages: R&D/emerging, growth, maturity, decline; competitive emphasis shifts from technical differentiation to cost and process efficiency as the technology matures.

Sustaining vs. disruptive innovation: sustaining innovations improve performance along the trajectory established by incumbents; disruptive innovations initially underperform on mainstream metrics but win on simplicity, cost, or new-market access.

Radical vs. incremental innovation: radical changes the core technology and opens new performance trajectories; incremental refines existing designs and is the dominant form of innovation in mature firms.

Open innovation: firms commercialize both internal and external ideas and use internal and external paths to market; contrast with closed innovation, which relies on internal R&D and internal commercialization.

Make-vs-buy for technology: internal development suits core capabilities and tacit knowledge; licensing, alliances, and acquisitions suit non-core or fast-moving technologies where time-to-market dominates.

Technology portfolio evaluation uses criteria such as strategic fit, technical feasibility, time to market, IP position, and expected net present value; score each project against weighted criteria rather than ranking on a single metric.

Absorptive capacity: a firm's ability to recognize the value of new external knowledge and apply it depends on prior related knowledge and internal R&D investment; R&D spending is both a generator of invention and a gatekeeper for external learning.

Little's Law: Work-in-process = throughput rate × flow time (WIP = R × T); holds for any stable system and lets you solve for any one variable given the other two.

Capacity utilization = actual output ÷ maximum possible output; effective capacity accounts for planned downtime and is always ≤ design capacity.

Bottleneck rule: system throughput equals the throughput of the constraint; non-bottleneck improvement does not raise total output unless it relieves the constraint.

EOQ = √(2DS/H), where D = annual demand, S = ordering cost per order, H = annual holding cost per unit; total cost is minimized where ordering cost equals holding cost.

Reorder point = demand during lead time + safety stock; safety stock rises with service level, demand variability, and lead-time variability.

Six Sigma quality: a process is at six sigma when specification limits are six standard deviations from the mean, giving roughly 3.4 defects per million opportunities when a 1.5-sigma long-term shift is assumed.

Lean principles: specify value, map the value stream, create flow, pull from customer demand, and pursue perfection; the eight wastes are defects, overproduction, waiting, non-utilized talent, transportation, inventory, motion, and excess processing.

Theory of Constraints five focusing steps: identify the constraint, exploit it, subordinate everything else to it, elevate it, then repeat once the constraint moves.

Aggregate planning trade-offs: chase strategy varies workforce and matches demand, level strategy holds a constant workforce and builds or depletes inventory, and mixed strategies combine the two.

Ohm's law: V = I × R; power P = V × I = I²R = V²/R; applies to resistive DC circuits and to instantaneous AC values.

Three-phase power: P = √3 × V_L × I_L × power factor for a balanced load, where V_L and I_L are line-to-line voltage and line current.

Stress = force ÷ cross-sectional area; strain = change in length ÷ original length; Young's modulus E = stress ÷ strain in the elastic (linear) region.

Factor of safety = material strength (yield or ultimate) ÷ applied working stress; a value greater than 1 indicates the design load is below the failure threshold.

Thermal expansion: ΔL = α × L × ΔT, where α is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion; constrained expansion generates thermal stress E × α × ΔT.

Basic thermodynamics: first law, energy is conserved (Q − W = ΔU for a closed system); second law, entropy of an isolated system never decreases and no heat engine can exceed Carnot efficiency 1 − T_cold/T_hot.

Gear and pulley ratios: ratio = driven teeth ÷ driving teeth = N_out ÷ N_in; torque multiplies by the ratio while speed divides by it, and power is unchanged apart from losses.

Tolerance stack-up: worst-case (arithmetic) sum adds all tolerances directly; statistical (root-sum-square) stack-up assumes independent random variations and gives a smaller, less conservative total.

Signal sampling: the Nyquist criterion requires a sampling rate greater than twice the highest signal frequency to avoid aliasing.

Tuckman team stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning; conflict peaks in storming and is resolved by clarifying roles and goals rather than by suppression.

Situational leadership: leader style (directing, coaching, supporting, delegating) is matched to follower readiness or development level; there is no single best style.

Expectancy theory: motivation = expectancy × instrumentality × valence; a zero in any factor yields zero motivation, so leaders must make each link credible.

SMART goals: specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, time-bound; measurable and time-bound criteria make goals verifiable and enable feedback.

Herzberg two-factor theory: hygiene factors (pay, policy, working conditions) prevent dissatisfaction but do not motivate; motivators (achievement, recognition, responsibility, growth) drive satisfaction.

Maslow hierarchy: physiological, safety, social, esteem, self-actualization; lower needs are typically addressed before higher ones, though the ordering is not rigid.

Conflict modes (Thomas–Kilmann): competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, accommodating; collaborating works best when both the issue and the relationship matter and time permits.

Change management (Kotter): create urgency, form a coalition, build a vision, communicate it, remove obstacles, generate short-term wins, consolidate gains, and anchor changes in culture.

Span of control and delegation: a narrow span suits complex, high-risk work; effective delegation assigns authority with accountability and defines the decision rights up front.

Technology S-curve: performance improves slowly at first, accelerates during the growth phase, then flattens as the technology approaches its physical limit; a new technology often starts below the incumbent on performance but crosses over once its own S-curve steepens.

Technology life cycle stages: R&D/emerging, growth, maturity, decline; competitive emphasis shifts from technical differentiation to cost and process efficiency as the technology matures.

Sustaining vs. disruptive innovation: sustaining innovations improve performance along the trajectory established by incumbents; disruptive innovations initially underperform on mainstream metrics but win on simplicity, cost, or new-market access.

Radical vs. incremental innovation: radical changes the core technology and opens new performance trajectories; incremental refines existing designs and is the dominant form of innovation in mature firms.

Open innovation: firms commercialize both internal and external ideas and use internal and external paths to market; contrast with closed innovation, which relies on internal R&D and internal commercialization.

Make-vs-buy for technology: internal development suits core capabilities and tacit knowledge; licensing, alliances, and acquisitions suit non-core or fast-moving technologies where time-to-market dominates.

Technology portfolio evaluation uses criteria such as strategic fit, technical feasibility, time to market, IP position, and expected net present value; score each project against weighted criteria rather than ranking on a single metric.

Absorptive capacity: a firm's ability to recognize the value of new external knowledge and apply it depends on prior related knowledge and internal R&D investment; R&D spending is both a generator of invention and a gatekeeper for external learning.

Little's Law: Work-in-process = throughput rate × flow time (WIP = R × T); holds for any stable system and lets you solve for any one variable given the other two.

Capacity utilization = actual output ÷ maximum possible output; effective capacity accounts for planned downtime and is always ≤ design capacity.

Bottleneck rule: system throughput equals the throughput of the constraint; non-bottleneck improvement does not raise total output unless it relieves the constraint.

EOQ = √(2DS/H), where D = annual demand, S = ordering cost per order, H = annual holding cost per unit; total cost is minimized where ordering cost equals holding cost.

Reorder point = demand during lead time + safety stock; safety stock rises with service level, demand variability, and lead-time variability.

Six Sigma quality: a process is at six sigma when specification limits are six standard deviations from the mean, giving roughly 3.4 defects per million opportunities when a 1.5-sigma long-term shift is assumed.

Lean principles: specify value, map the value stream, create flow, pull from customer demand, and pursue perfection; the eight wastes are defects, overproduction, waiting, non-utilized talent, transportation, inventory, motion, and excess processing.

Theory of Constraints five focusing steps: identify the constraint, exploit it, subordinate everything else to it, elevate it, then repeat once the constraint moves.

Aggregate planning trade-offs: chase strategy varies workforce and matches demand, level strategy holds a constant workforce and builds or depletes inventory, and mixed strategies combine the two.

Ohm's law: V = I × R; power P = V × I = I²R = V²/R; applies to resistive DC circuits and to instantaneous AC values.

Three-phase power: P = √3 × V_L × I_L × power factor for a balanced load, where V_L and I_L are line-to-line voltage and line current.

Stress = force ÷ cross-sectional area; strain = change in length ÷ original length; Young's modulus E = stress ÷ strain in the elastic (linear) region.

Factor of safety = material strength (yield or ultimate) ÷ applied working stress; a value greater than 1 indicates the design load is below the failure threshold.

Thermal expansion: ΔL = α × L × ΔT, where α is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion; constrained expansion generates thermal stress E × α × ΔT.

Basic thermodynamics: first law, energy is conserved (Q − W = ΔU for a closed system); second law, entropy of an isolated system never decreases and no heat engine can exceed Carnot efficiency 1 − T_cold/T_hot.

Gear and pulley ratios: ratio = driven teeth ÷ driving teeth = N_out ÷ N_in; torque multiplies by the ratio while speed divides by it, and power is unchanged apart from losses.

Tolerance stack-up: worst-case (arithmetic) sum adds all tolerances directly; statistical (root-sum-square) stack-up assumes independent random variations and gives a smaller, less conservative total.

Signal sampling: the Nyquist criterion requires a sampling rate greater than twice the highest signal frequency to avoid aliasing.

Tuckman team stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning; conflict peaks in storming and is resolved by clarifying roles and goals rather than by suppression.

Situational leadership: leader style (directing, coaching, supporting, delegating) is matched to follower readiness or development level; there is no single best style.

Expectancy theory: motivation = expectancy × instrumentality × valence; a zero in any factor yields zero motivation, so leaders must make each link credible.

SMART goals: specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, time-bound; measurable and time-bound criteria make goals verifiable and enable feedback.

Herzberg two-factor theory: hygiene factors (pay, policy, working conditions) prevent dissatisfaction but do not motivate; motivators (achievement, recognition, responsibility, growth) drive satisfaction.

Maslow hierarchy: physiological, safety, social, esteem, self-actualization; lower needs are typically addressed before higher ones, though the ordering is not rigid.

Conflict modes (Thomas–Kilmann): competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, accommodating; collaborating works best when both the issue and the relationship matter and time permits.

Change management (Kotter): create urgency, form a coalition, build a vision, communicate it, remove obstacles, generate short-term wins, consolidate gains, and anchor changes in culture.

Span of control and delegation: a narrow span suits complex, high-risk work; effective delegation assigns authority with accountability and defines the decision rights up front.

Technology S-curve: performance improves slowly at first, accelerates during the growth phase, then flattens as the technology approaches its physical limit; a new technology often starts below the incumbent on performance but crosses over once its own S-curve steepens.

Technology life cycle stages: R&D/emerging, growth, maturity, decline; competitive emphasis shifts from technical differentiation to cost and process efficiency as the technology matures.

Sustaining vs. disruptive innovation: sustaining innovations improve performance along the trajectory established by incumbents; disruptive innovations initially underperform on mainstream metrics but win on simplicity, cost, or new-market access.

Radical vs. incremental innovation: radical changes the core technology and opens new performance trajectories; incremental refines existing designs and is the dominant form of innovation in mature firms.

Open innovation: firms commercialize both internal and external ideas and use internal and external paths to market; contrast with closed innovation, which relies on internal R&D and internal commercialization.

Make-vs-buy for technology: internal development suits core capabilities and tacit knowledge; licensing, alliances, and acquisitions suit non-core or fast-moving technologies where time-to-market dominates.

Technology portfolio evaluation uses criteria such as strategic fit, technical feasibility, time to market, IP position, and expected net present value; score each project against weighted criteria rather than ranking on a single metric.

Absorptive capacity: a firm's ability to recognize the value of new external knowledge and apply it depends on prior related knowledge and internal R&D investment; R&D spending is both a generator of invention and a gatekeeper for external learning.

Little's Law: Work-in-process = throughput rate × flow time (WIP = R × T); holds for any stable system and lets you solve for any one variable given the other two.

Capacity utilization = actual output ÷ maximum possible output; effective capacity accounts for planned downtime and is always ≤ design capacity.

Bottleneck rule: system throughput equals the throughput of the constraint; non-bottleneck improvement does not raise total output unless it relieves the constraint.

EOQ = √(2DS/H), where D = annual demand, S = ordering cost per order, H = annual holding cost per unit; total cost is minimized where ordering cost equals holding cost.

Reorder point = demand during lead time + safety stock; safety stock rises with service level, demand variability, and lead-time variability.

Six Sigma quality: a process is at six sigma when specification limits are six standard deviations from the mean, giving roughly 3.4 defects per million opportunities when a 1.5-sigma long-term shift is assumed.

Lean principles: specify value, map the value stream, create flow, pull from customer demand, and pursue perfection; the eight wastes are defects, overproduction, waiting, non-utilized talent, transportation, inventory, motion, and excess processing.

Theory of Constraints five focusing steps: identify the constraint, exploit it, subordinate everything else to it, elevate it, then repeat once the constraint moves.

Aggregate planning trade-offs: chase strategy varies workforce and matches demand, level strategy holds a constant workforce and builds or depletes inventory, and mixed strategies combine the two.

Ohm's law: V = I × R; power P = V × I = I²R = V²/R; applies to resistive DC circuits and to instantaneous AC values.

Three-phase power: P = √3 × V_L × I_L × power factor for a balanced load, where V_L and I_L are line-to-line voltage and line current.

Stress = force ÷ cross-sectional area; strain = change in length ÷ original length; Young's modulus E = stress ÷ strain in the elastic (linear) region.

Factor of safety = material strength (yield or ultimate) ÷ applied working stress; a value greater than 1 indicates the design load is below the failure threshold.

Thermal expansion: ΔL = α × L × ΔT, where α is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion; constrained expansion generates thermal stress E × α × ΔT.

Basic thermodynamics: first law, energy is conserved (Q − W = ΔU for a closed system); second law, entropy of an isolated system never decreases and no heat engine can exceed Carnot efficiency 1 − T_cold/T_hot.

Gear and pulley ratios: ratio = driven teeth ÷ driving teeth = N_out ÷ N_in; torque multiplies by the ratio while speed divides by it, and power is unchanged apart from losses.

Tolerance stack-up: worst-case (arithmetic) sum adds all tolerances directly; statistical (root-sum-square) stack-up assumes independent random variations and gives a smaller, less conservative total.

Signal sampling: the Nyquist criterion requires a sampling rate greater than twice the highest signal frequency to avoid aliasing.

Tuckman team stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning; conflict peaks in storming and is resolved by clarifying roles and goals rather than by suppression.

Situational leadership: leader style (directing, coaching, supporting, delegating) is matched to follower readiness or development level; there is no single best style.

Expectancy theory: motivation = expectancy × instrumentality × valence; a zero in any factor yields zero motivation, so leaders must make each link credible.

SMART goals: specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, time-bound; measurable and time-bound criteria make goals verifiable and enable feedback.

Herzberg two-factor theory: hygiene factors (pay, policy, working conditions) prevent dissatisfaction but do not motivate; motivators (achievement, recognition, responsibility, growth) drive satisfaction.

Maslow hierarchy: physiological, safety, social, esteem, self-actualization; lower needs are typically addressed before higher ones, though the ordering is not rigid.

Conflict modes (Thomas–Kilmann): competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, accommodating; collaborating works best when both the issue and the relationship matter and time permits.

Change management (Kotter): create urgency, form a coalition, build a vision, communicate it, remove obstacles, generate short-term wins, consolidate gains, and anchor changes in culture.

Span of control and delegation: a narrow span suits complex, high-risk work; effective delegation assigns authority with accountability and defines the decision rights up front.

Technology S-curve: performance improves slowly at first, accelerates during the growth phase, then flattens as the technology approaches its physical limit; a new technology often starts below the incumbent on performance but crosses over once its own S-curve steepens.

Technology life cycle stages: R&D/emerging, growth, maturity, decline; competitive emphasis shifts from technical differentiation to cost and process efficiency as the technology matures.

Sustaining vs. disruptive innovation: sustaining innovations improve performance along the trajectory established by incumbents; disruptive innovations initially underperform on mainstream metrics but win on simplicity, cost, or new-market access.

Radical vs. incremental innovation: radical changes the core technology and opens new performance trajectories; incremental refines existing designs and is the dominant form of innovation in mature firms.

Open innovation: firms commercialize both internal and external ideas and use internal and external paths to market; contrast with closed innovation, which relies on internal R&D and internal commercialization.

Make-vs-buy for technology: internal development suits core capabilities and tacit knowledge; licensing, alliances, and acquisitions suit non-core or fast-moving technologies where time-to-market dominates.

Technology portfolio evaluation uses criteria such as strategic fit, technical feasibility, time to market, IP position, and expected net present value; score each project against weighted criteria rather than ranking on a single metric.

Absorptive capacity: a firm's ability to recognize the value of new external knowledge and apply it depends on prior related knowledge and internal R&D investment; R&D spending is both a generator of invention and a gatekeeper for external learning.

Little's Law: Work-in-process = throughput rate × flow time (WIP = R × T); holds for any stable system and lets you solve for any one variable given the other two.

Capacity utilization = actual output ÷ maximum possible output; effective capacity accounts for planned downtime and is always ≤ design capacity.

Bottleneck rule: system throughput equals the throughput of the constraint; non-bottleneck improvement does not raise total output unless it relieves the constraint.

EOQ = √(2DS/H), where D = annual demand, S = ordering cost per order, H = annual holding cost per unit; total cost is minimized where ordering cost equals holding cost.

Reorder point = demand during lead time + safety stock; safety stock rises with service level, demand variability, and lead-time variability.

Six Sigma quality: a process is at six sigma when specification limits are six standard deviations from the mean, giving roughly 3.4 defects per million opportunities when a 1.5-sigma long-term shift is assumed.

Lean principles: specify value, map the value stream, create flow, pull from customer demand, and pursue perfection; the eight wastes are defects, overproduction, waiting, non-utilized talent, transportation, inventory, motion, and excess processing.

Theory of Constraints five focusing steps: identify the constraint, exploit it, subordinate everything else to it, elevate it, then repeat once the constraint moves.

Aggregate planning trade-offs: chase strategy varies workforce and matches demand, level strategy holds a constant workforce and builds or depletes inventory, and mixed strategies combine the two.

Ohm's law: V = I × R; power P = V × I = I²R = V²/R; applies to resistive DC circuits and to instantaneous AC values.

Three-phase power: P = √3 × V_L × I_L × power factor for a balanced load, where V_L and I_L are line-to-line voltage and line current.

Stress = force ÷ cross-sectional area; strain = change in length ÷ original length; Young's modulus E = stress ÷ strain in the elastic (linear) region.

Factor of safety = material strength (yield or ultimate) ÷ applied working stress; a value greater than 1 indicates the design load is below the failure threshold.

Thermal expansion: ΔL = α × L × ΔT, where α is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion; constrained expansion generates thermal stress E × α × ΔT.

Basic thermodynamics: first law, energy is conserved (Q − W = ΔU for a closed system); second law, entropy of an isolated system never decreases and no heat engine can exceed Carnot efficiency 1 − T_cold/T_hot.

Gear and pulley ratios: ratio = driven teeth ÷ driving teeth = N_out ÷ N_in; torque multiplies by the ratio while speed divides by it, and power is unchanged apart from losses.

Tolerance stack-up: worst-case (arithmetic) sum adds all tolerances directly; statistical (root-sum-square) stack-up assumes independent random variations and gives a smaller, less conservative total.

Signal sampling: the Nyquist criterion requires a sampling rate greater than twice the highest signal frequency to avoid aliasing.

Tuckman team stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning; conflict peaks in storming and is resolved by clarifying roles and goals rather than by suppression.

Situational leadership: leader style (directing, coaching, supporting, delegating) is matched to follower readiness or development level; there is no single best style.

Expectancy theory: motivation = expectancy × instrumentality × valence; a zero in any factor yields zero motivation, so leaders must make each link credible.

SMART goals: specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, time-bound; measurable and time-bound criteria make goals verifiable and enable feedback.

Herzberg two-factor theory: hygiene factors (pay, policy, working conditions) prevent dissatisfaction but do not motivate; motivators (achievement, recognition, responsibility, growth) drive satisfaction.

Maslow hierarchy: physiological, safety, social, esteem, self-actualization; lower needs are typically addressed before higher ones, though the ordering is not rigid.

Conflict modes (Thomas–Kilmann): competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, accommodating; collaborating works best when both the issue and the relationship matter and time permits.

Change management (Kotter): create urgency, form a coalition, build a vision, communicate it, remove obstacles, generate short-term wins, consolidate gains, and anchor changes in culture.

Span of control and delegation: a narrow span suits complex, high-risk work; effective delegation assigns authority with accountability and defines the decision rights up front.

Technology S-curve: performance improves slowly at first, accelerates during the growth phase, then flattens as the technology approaches its physical limit; a new technology often starts below the incumbent on performance but crosses over once its own S-curve steepens.

Technology life cycle stages: R&D/emerging, growth, maturity, decline; competitive emphasis shifts from technical differentiation to cost and process efficiency as the technology matures.

Sustaining vs. disruptive innovation: sustaining innovations improve performance along the trajectory established by incumbents; disruptive innovations initially underperform on mainstream metrics but win on simplicity, cost, or new-market access.

Radical vs. incremental innovation: radical changes the core technology and opens new performance trajectories; incremental refines existing designs and is the dominant form of innovation in mature firms.

Open innovation: firms commercialize both internal and external ideas and use internal and external paths to market; contrast with closed innovation, which relies on internal R&D and internal commercialization.

Make-vs-buy for technology: internal development suits core capabilities and tacit knowledge; licensing, alliances, and acquisitions suit non-core or fast-moving technologies where time-to-market dominates.

Technology portfolio evaluation uses criteria such as strategic fit, technical feasibility, time to market, IP position, and expected net present value; score each project against weighted criteria rather than ranking on a single metric.

Absorptive capacity: a firm's ability to recognize the value of new external knowledge and apply it depends on prior related knowledge and internal R&D investment; R&D spending is both a generator of invention and a gatekeeper for external learning.

Little's Law: Work-in-process = throughput rate × flow time (WIP = R × T); holds for any stable system and lets you solve for any one variable given the other two.

Capacity utilization = actual output ÷ maximum possible output; effective capacity accounts for planned downtime and is always ≤ design capacity.

Bottleneck rule: system throughput equals the throughput of the constraint; non-bottleneck improvement does not raise total output unless it relieves the constraint.

EOQ = √(2DS/H), where D = annual demand, S = ordering cost per order, H = annual holding cost per unit; total cost is minimized where ordering cost equals holding cost.

Reorder point = demand during lead time + safety stock; safety stock rises with service level, demand variability, and lead-time variability.

Six Sigma quality: a process is at six sigma when specification limits are six standard deviations from the mean, giving roughly 3.4 defects per million opportunities when a 1.5-sigma long-term shift is assumed.

Lean principles: specify value, map the value stream, create flow, pull from customer demand, and pursue perfection; the eight wastes are defects, overproduction, waiting, non-utilized talent, transportation, inventory, motion, and excess processing.

Theory of Constraints five focusing steps: identify the constraint, exploit it, subordinate everything else to it, elevate it, then repeat once the constraint moves.

Aggregate planning trade-offs: chase strategy varies workforce and matches demand, level strategy holds a constant workforce and builds or depletes inventory, and mixed strategies combine the two.

Ohm's law: V = I × R; power P = V × I = I²R = V²/R; applies to resistive DC circuits and to instantaneous AC values.

Three-phase power: P = √3 × V_L × I_L × power factor for a balanced load, where V_L and I_L are line-to-line voltage and line current.

Stress = force ÷ cross-sectional area; strain = change in length ÷ original length; Young's modulus E = stress ÷ strain in the elastic (linear) region.

Factor of safety = material strength (yield or ultimate) ÷ applied working stress; a value greater than 1 indicates the design load is below the failure threshold.

Thermal expansion: ΔL = α × L × ΔT, where α is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion; constrained expansion generates thermal stress E × α × ΔT.

Basic thermodynamics: first law, energy is conserved (Q − W = ΔU for a closed system); second law, entropy of an isolated system never decreases and no heat engine can exceed Carnot efficiency 1 − T_cold/T_hot.

Gear and pulley ratios: ratio = driven teeth ÷ driving teeth = N_out ÷ N_in; torque multiplies by the ratio while speed divides by it, and power is unchanged apart from losses.

Tolerance stack-up: worst-case (arithmetic) sum adds all tolerances directly; statistical (root-sum-square) stack-up assumes independent random variations and gives a smaller, less conservative total.

Signal sampling: the Nyquist criterion requires a sampling rate greater than twice the highest signal frequency to avoid aliasing.

Tuckman team stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning; conflict peaks in storming and is resolved by clarifying roles and goals rather than by suppression.

Situational leadership: leader style (directing, coaching, supporting, delegating) is matched to follower readiness or development level; there is no single best style.

Expectancy theory: motivation = expectancy × instrumentality × valence; a zero in any factor yields zero motivation, so leaders must make each link credible.

SMART goals: specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, time-bound; measurable and time-bound criteria make goals verifiable and enable feedback.

Herzberg two-factor theory: hygiene factors (pay, policy, working conditions) prevent dissatisfaction but do not motivate; motivators (achievement, recognition, responsibility, growth) drive satisfaction.

Maslow hierarchy: physiological, safety, social, esteem, self-actualization; lower needs are typically addressed before higher ones, though the ordering is not rigid.

Conflict modes (Thomas–Kilmann): competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, accommodating; collaborating works best when both the issue and the relationship matter and time permits.

Change management (Kotter): create urgency, form a coalition, build a vision, communicate it, remove obstacles, generate short-term wins, consolidate gains, and anchor changes in culture.

Span of control and delegation: a narrow span suits complex, high-risk work; effective delegation assigns authority with accountability and defines the decision rights up front.

Technology S-curve: performance improves slowly at first, accelerates during the growth phase, then flattens as the technology approaches its physical limit; a new technology often starts below the incumbent on performance but crosses over once its own S-curve steepens.

Technology life cycle stages: R&D/emerging, growth, maturity, decline; competitive emphasis shifts from technical differentiation to cost and process efficiency as the technology matures.

Sustaining vs. disruptive innovation: sustaining innovations improve performance along the trajectory established by incumbents; disruptive innovations initially underperform on mainstream metrics but win on simplicity, cost, or new-market access.

Radical vs. incremental innovation: radical changes the core technology and opens new performance trajectories; incremental refines existing designs and is the dominant form of innovation in mature firms.

Open innovation: firms commercialize both internal and external ideas and use internal and external paths to market; contrast with closed innovation, which relies on internal R&D and internal commercialization.

Make-vs-buy for technology: internal development suits core capabilities and tacit knowledge; licensing, alliances, and acquisitions suit non-core or fast-moving technologies where time-to-market dominates.

Technology portfolio evaluation uses criteria such as strategic fit, technical feasibility, time to market, IP position, and expected net present value; score each project against weighted criteria rather than ranking on a single metric.

Absorptive capacity: a firm's ability to recognize the value of new external knowledge and apply it depends on prior related knowledge and internal R&D investment; R&D spending is both a generator of invention and a gatekeeper for external learning.

Little's Law: Work-in-process = throughput rate × flow time (WIP = R × T); holds for any stable system and lets you solve for any one variable given the other two.

Capacity utilization = actual output ÷ maximum possible output; effective capacity accounts for planned downtime and is always ≤ design capacity.

Bottleneck rule: system throughput equals the throughput of the constraint; non-bottleneck improvement does not raise total output unless it relieves the constraint.

EOQ = √(2DS/H), where D = annual demand, S = ordering cost per order, H = annual holding cost per unit; total cost is minimized where ordering cost equals holding cost.

Reorder point = demand during lead time + safety stock; safety stock rises with service level, demand variability, and lead-time variability.

Six Sigma quality: a process is at six sigma when specification limits are six standard deviations from the mean, giving roughly 3.4 defects per million opportunities when a 1.5-sigma long-term shift is assumed.

Lean principles: specify value, map the value stream, create flow, pull from customer demand, and pursue perfection; the eight wastes are defects, overproduction, waiting, non-utilized talent, transportation, inventory, motion, and excess processing.

Theory of Constraints five focusing steps: identify the constraint, exploit it, subordinate everything else to it, elevate it, then repeat once the constraint moves.

Aggregate planning trade-offs: chase strategy varies workforce and matches demand, level strategy holds a constant workforce and builds or depletes inventory, and mixed strategies combine the two.

Ohm's law: V = I × R; power P = V × I = I²R = V²/R; applies to resistive DC circuits and to instantaneous AC values.

Three-phase power: P = √3 × V_L × I_L × power factor for a balanced load, where V_L and I_L are line-to-line voltage and line current.

Stress = force ÷ cross-sectional area; strain = change in length ÷ original length; Young's modulus E = stress ÷ strain in the elastic (linear) region.

Factor of safety = material strength (yield or ultimate) ÷ applied working stress; a value greater than 1 indicates the design load is below the failure threshold.

Thermal expansion: ΔL = α × L × ΔT, where α is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion; constrained expansion generates thermal stress E × α × ΔT.

Basic thermodynamics: first law, energy is conserved (Q − W = ΔU for a closed system); second law, entropy of an isolated system never decreases and no heat engine can exceed Carnot efficiency 1 − T_cold/T_hot.

Gear and pulley ratios: ratio = driven teeth ÷ driving teeth = N_out ÷ N_in; torque multiplies by the ratio while speed divides by it, and power is unchanged apart from losses.

Tolerance stack-up: worst-case (arithmetic) sum adds all tolerances directly; statistical (root-sum-square) stack-up assumes independent random variations and gives a smaller, less conservative total.

Signal sampling: the Nyquist criterion requires a sampling rate greater than twice the highest signal frequency to avoid aliasing.

Tuckman team stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning; conflict peaks in storming and is resolved by clarifying roles and goals rather than by suppression.

Situational leadership: leader style (directing, coaching, supporting, delegating) is matched to follower readiness or development level; there is no single best style.

Expectancy theory: motivation = expectancy × instrumentality × valence; a zero in any factor yields zero motivation, so leaders must make each link credible.

SMART goals: specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, time-bound; measurable and time-bound criteria make goals verifiable and enable feedback.

Herzberg two-factor theory: hygiene factors (pay, policy, working conditions) prevent dissatisfaction but do not motivate; motivators (achievement, recognition, responsibility, growth) drive satisfaction.

Maslow hierarchy: physiological, safety, social, esteem, self-actualization; lower needs are typically addressed before higher ones, though the ordering is not rigid.

Conflict modes (Thomas–Kilmann): competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, accommodating; collaborating works best when both the issue and the relationship matter and time permits.

Change management (Kotter): create urgency, form a coalition, build a vision, communicate it, remove obstacles, generate short-term wins, consolidate gains, and anchor changes in culture.

Span of control and delegation: a narrow span suits complex, high-risk work; effective delegation assigns authority with accountability and defines the decision rights up front.

Technology S-curve: performance improves slowly at first, accelerates during the growth phase, then flattens as the technology approaches its physical limit; a new technology often starts below the incumbent on performance but crosses over once its own S-curve steepens.

Technology life cycle stages: R&D/emerging, growth, maturity, decline; competitive emphasis shifts from technical differentiation to cost and process efficiency as the technology matures.

Sustaining vs. disruptive innovation: sustaining innovations improve performance along the trajectory established by incumbents; disruptive innovations initially underperform on mainstream metrics but win on simplicity, cost, or new-market access.

Radical vs. incremental innovation: radical changes the core technology and opens new performance trajectories; incremental refines existing designs and is the dominant form of innovation in mature firms.

Open innovation: firms commercialize both internal and external ideas and use internal and external paths to market; contrast with closed innovation, which relies on internal R&D and internal commercialization.

Make-vs-buy for technology: internal development suits core capabilities and tacit knowledge; licensing, alliances, and acquisitions suit non-core or fast-moving technologies where time-to-market dominates.

Technology portfolio evaluation uses criteria such as strategic fit, technical feasibility, time to market, IP position, and expected net present value; score each project against weighted criteria rather than ranking on a single metric.

Absorptive capacity: a firm's ability to recognize the value of new external knowledge and apply it depends on prior related knowledge and internal R&D investment; R&D spending is both a generator of invention and a gatekeeper for external learning.

Little's Law: Work-in-process = throughput rate × flow time (WIP = R × T); holds for any stable system and lets you solve for any one variable given the other two.

Capacity utilization = actual output ÷ maximum possible output; effective capacity accounts for planned downtime and is always ≤ design capacity.

Bottleneck rule: system throughput equals the throughput of the constraint; non-bottleneck improvement does not raise total output unless it relieves the constraint.

EOQ = √(2DS/H), where D = annual demand, S = ordering cost per order, H = annual holding cost per unit; total cost is minimized where ordering cost equals holding cost.

Reorder point = demand during lead time + safety stock; safety stock rises with service level, demand variability, and lead-time variability.

Six Sigma quality: a process is at six sigma when specification limits are six standard deviations from the mean, giving roughly 3.4 defects per million opportunities when a 1.5-sigma long-term shift is assumed.

Lean principles: specify value, map the value stream, create flow, pull from customer demand, and pursue perfection; the eight wastes are defects, overproduction, waiting, non-utilized talent, transportation, inventory, motion, and excess processing.

Theory of Constraints five focusing steps: identify the constraint, exploit it, subordinate everything else to it, elevate it, then repeat once the constraint moves.

Aggregate planning trade-offs: chase strategy varies workforce and matches demand, level strategy holds a constant workforce and builds or depletes inventory, and mixed strategies combine the two.

Ohm's law: V = I × R; power P = V × I = I²R = V²/R; applies to resistive DC circuits and to instantaneous AC values.

Three-phase power: P = √3 × V_L × I_L × power factor for a balanced load, where V_L and I_L are line-to-line voltage and line current.

Stress = force ÷ cross-sectional area; strain = change in length ÷ original length; Young's modulus E = stress ÷ strain in the elastic (linear) region.

Factor of safety = material strength (yield or ultimate) ÷ applied working stress; a value greater than 1 indicates the design load is below the failure threshold.

Thermal expansion: ΔL = α × L × ΔT, where α is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion; constrained expansion generates thermal stress E × α × ΔT.

Basic thermodynamics: first law, energy is conserved (Q − W = ΔU for a closed system); second law, entropy of an isolated system never decreases and no heat engine can exceed Carnot efficiency 1 − T_cold/T_hot.

Gear and pulley ratios: ratio = driven teeth ÷ driving teeth = N_out ÷ N_in; torque multiplies by the ratio while speed divides by it, and power is unchanged apart from losses.

Tolerance stack-up: worst-case (arithmetic) sum adds all tolerances directly; statistical (root-sum-square) stack-up assumes independent random variations and gives a smaller, less conservative total.

Signal sampling: the Nyquist criterion requires a sampling rate greater than twice the highest signal frequency to avoid aliasing.

Tuckman team stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning; conflict peaks in storming and is resolved by clarifying roles and goals rather than by suppression.

Situational leadership: leader style (directing, coaching, supporting, delegating) is matched to follower readiness or development level; there is no single best style.

Expectancy theory: motivation = expectancy × instrumentality × valence; a zero in any factor yields zero motivation, so leaders must make each link credible.

SMART goals: specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, time-bound; measurable and time-bound criteria make goals verifiable and enable feedback.

Herzberg two-factor theory: hygiene factors (pay, policy, working conditions) prevent dissatisfaction but do not motivate; motivators (achievement, recognition, responsibility, growth) drive satisfaction.

Maslow hierarchy: physiological, safety, social, esteem, self-actualization; lower needs are typically addressed before higher ones, though the ordering is not rigid.

Conflict modes (Thomas–Kilmann): competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, accommodating; collaborating works best when both the issue and the relationship matter and time permits.

Change management (Kotter): create urgency, form a coalition, build a vision, communicate it, remove obstacles, generate short-term wins, consolidate gains, and anchor changes in culture.

Span of control and delegation: a narrow span suits complex, high-risk work; effective delegation assigns authority with accountability and defines the decision rights up front.

Technology S-curve: performance improves slowly at first, accelerates during the growth phase, then flattens as the technology approaches its physical limit; a new technology often starts below the incumbent on performance but crosses over once its own S-curve steepens.

Technology life cycle stages: R&D/emerging, growth, maturity, decline; competitive emphasis shifts from technical differentiation to cost and process efficiency as the technology matures.

Sustaining vs. disruptive innovation: sustaining innovations improve performance along the trajectory established by incumbents; disruptive innovations initially underperform on mainstream metrics but win on simplicity, cost, or new-market access.

Radical vs. incremental innovation: radical changes the core technology and opens new performance trajectories; incremental refines existing designs and is the dominant form of innovation in mature firms.

Open innovation: firms commercialize both internal and external ideas and use internal and external paths to market; contrast with closed innovation, which relies on internal R&D and internal commercialization.

Make-vs-buy for technology: internal development suits core capabilities and tacit knowledge; licensing, alliances, and acquisitions suit non-core or fast-moving technologies where time-to-market dominates.

Technology portfolio evaluation uses criteria such as strategic fit, technical feasibility, time to market, IP position, and expected net present value; score each project against weighted criteria rather than ranking on a single metric.

Absorptive capacity: a firm's ability to recognize the value of new external knowledge and apply it depends on prior related knowledge and internal R&D investment; R&D spending is both a generator of invention and a gatekeeper for external learning.

Little's Law: Work-in-process = throughput rate × flow time (WIP = R × T); holds for any stable system and lets you solve for any one variable given the other two.

Capacity utilization = actual output ÷ maximum possible output; effective capacity accounts for planned downtime and is always ≤ design capacity.

Bottleneck rule: system throughput equals the throughput of the constraint; non-bottleneck improvement does not raise total output unless it relieves the constraint.

EOQ = √(2DS/H), where D = annual demand, S = ordering cost per order, H = annual holding cost per unit; total cost is minimized where ordering cost equals holding cost.

Reorder point = demand during lead time + safety stock; safety stock rises with service level, demand variability, and lead-time variability.

Six Sigma quality: a process is at six sigma when specification limits are six standard deviations from the mean, giving roughly 3.4 defects per million opportunities when a 1.5-sigma long-term shift is assumed.

Lean principles: specify value, map the value stream, create flow, pull from customer demand, and pursue perfection; the eight wastes are defects, overproduction, waiting, non-utilized talent, transportation, inventory, motion, and excess processing.

Theory of Constraints five focusing steps: identify the constraint, exploit it, subordinate everything else to it, elevate it, then repeat once the constraint moves.

Aggregate planning trade-offs: chase strategy varies workforce and matches demand, level strategy holds a constant workforce and builds or depletes inventory, and mixed strategies combine the two.

Ohm's law: V = I × R; power P = V × I = I²R = V²/R; applies to resistive DC circuits and to instantaneous AC values.

Three-phase power: P = √3 × V_L × I_L × power factor for a balanced load, where V_L and I_L are line-to-line voltage and line current.

Stress = force ÷ cross-sectional area; strain = change in length ÷ original length; Young's modulus E = stress ÷ strain in the elastic (linear) region.

Factor of safety = material strength (yield or ultimate) ÷ applied working stress; a value greater than 1 indicates the design load is below the failure threshold.

Thermal expansion: ΔL = α × L × ΔT, where α is the coefficient of linear thermal expansion; constrained expansion generates thermal stress E × α × ΔT.

Basic thermodynamics: first law, energy is conserved (Q − W = ΔU for a closed system); second law, entropy of an isolated system never decreases and no heat engine can exceed Carnot efficiency 1 − T_cold/T_hot.

Gear and pulley ratios: ratio = driven teeth ÷ driving teeth = N_out ÷ N_in; torque multiplies by the ratio while speed divides by it, and power is unchanged apart from losses.

Tolerance stack-up: worst-case (arithmetic) sum adds all tolerances directly; statistical (root-sum-square) stack-up assumes independent random variations and gives a smaller, less conservative total.

Signal sampling: the Nyquist criterion requires a sampling rate greater than twice the highest signal frequency to avoid aliasing.

Tuckman team stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, adjourning; conflict peaks in storming and is resolved by clarifying roles and goals rather than by suppression.

Situational leadership: leader style (directing, coaching, supporting, delegating) is matched to follower readiness or development level; there is no single best style.

Expectancy theory: motivation = expectancy × instrumentality × valence; a zero in any factor yields zero motivation, so leaders must make each link credible.

SMART goals: specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, time-bound; measurable and time-bound criteria make goals verifiable and enable feedback.

Herzberg two-factor theory: hygiene factors (pay, policy, working conditions) prevent dissatisfaction but do not motivate; motivators (achievement, recognition, responsibility, growth) drive satisfaction.

Maslow hierarchy: physiological, safety, social, esteem, self-actualization; lower needs are typically addressed before higher ones, though the ordering is not rigid.

Conflict modes (Thomas–Kilmann): competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, accommodating; collaborating works best when both the issue and the relationship matter and time permits.

Change management (Kotter): create urgency, form a coalition, build a vision, communicate it, remove obstacles, generate short-term wins, consolidate gains, and anchor changes in culture.

Span of control and delegation: a narrow span suits complex, high-risk work; effective delegation assigns authority with accountability and defines the decision rights up front.