Pancyprian TS Org. Agriculture cheat sheet

C3 photosynthesis: CO2 fixed by RuBisCO into 3-phosphoglycerate in mesophyll cells; photorespiration rises above ~25 °C, lowering net assimilation.

C4 photosynthesis separates initial fixation (PEP carboxylase, mesophyll) from the Calvin cycle (bundle-sheath cells), reducing photorespiration in hot, high-light conditions.

CAM plants fix CO2 at night into malate stored in vacuoles and decarboxylate it by day; stomata closed in daylight cut transpiration losses.

Growing degree days (GDD) = Σ[(Tmax + Tmin)/2 − Tbase] using daily values above Tbase; used to time sowing, irrigation and pest emergence.

Leaf area index (LAI) = total one-sided leaf area per unit ground area; crop light interception saturates near LAI 4–6 in many field crops.

Harvest index = economic yield / total above-ground biological yield; breeding gains in cereals often come from raising harvest index rather than biomass.

Seed germination requires water uptake, suitable temperature and oxygen; for many species the sequence is imbibition, enzyme activation, radicle emergence, then shoot emergence.

Crop rotation with legumes interrupts soil-borne pathogen cycles and adds biologically fixed N; cereal-after-legume sequences typically reduce fertilizer N need.

Vernalization is cold exposure required for flowering in winter cereals; without it, cultivars stay vegetative or flower late, so sowing date matters.

Soil texture classes follow the particle-size triangle: sand 2.0–0.05 mm, silt 0.05–0.002 mm, clay <0.002 mm (international scheme varies slightly).

Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is the sum of exchangeable cations per mass of soil, usually cmol(+)/kg; clay type and organic matter are the main determinants.

Base saturation = (exchangeable Ca + Mg + K + Na) / CEC × 100; low base saturation signals acidity and possible lime requirement.

Soil pH controls nutrient availability: P is most available at pH 6.0–7.0; Fe, Mn, Zn and B become deficient at high pH; Al and Mn toxicity appear at low pH.

Lime requirement is estimated by buffer-pH or exchangeable-acidity methods; the target is usually pH 6.0–6.5 for most arable crops, higher for some legumes.

N mineralization from organic matter depends on C:N ratio; materials above about 25:1 immobilize N, below about 20:1 release it.

Bulk density = oven-dry soil mass / total volume; high bulk density indicates compaction and restricts root penetration and water infiltration.

Available water capacity = water held between field capacity (−33 kPa) and permanent wilting point (−1500 kPa); sandy soils hold less than clayey or organic soils.

The Liebig law of the minimum: yield is limited by the scarcest essential nutrient, so correcting other nutrients without it gives no response.

Economic injury level (EIL) is the pest density at which control cost equals crop loss; economic threshold is the density triggering action, set below EIL.

Integrated pest management hierarchy: prevention, monitoring, biological control, cultural and mechanical methods, then chemical control as a last resort.

Insecticide resistance management relies on mode-of-action rotation (IRAC groups), refuges and not exceeding label application frequency.

Koch's postulates link a suspect pathogen to a disease: consistent association, isolation in pure culture, inoculation reproducing symptoms, re-isolation.

Obligate biotrophs (powdery and downy mildews, rusts) cannot be cultured on artificial media; diagnosis relies on signs and symptoms.

Weed competition is most damaging early in the season; the critical period of weed control is the interval during which weeds must be removed to prevent yield loss.

Herbicide resistance management: rotate sites of action (HRAC groups), use tank or sequence mixes with effective partners, and integrate mechanical and cultural control.

Quarantine pests are regulated organisms whose introduction or spread is prohibited; they trigger official control measures and notification obligations.

Biological control agents include predators, parasitoids and microbial biopesticides such as Bacillus thuringiensis against lepidopteran larvae.

Ruminant digestion: rumen microbes ferment cellulose to volatile fatty acids; microbial protein supplies amino acids, so dietary protein quality matters less than for monogastrics.

Dry matter intake and feed conversion ratio (kg feed / kg gain) are core efficiency indicators; lower FCR means more efficient production.

Main zoonoses relevant to farm production include brucellosis, salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis, tuberculosis and echinococcosis; control combines herd health and hygiene.

Milk withdrawal periods after antibiotic treatment must be observed; residues above maximum residue limits make milk unfit for human consumption.

Ration formulation balances energy, protein, minerals and vitamins against requirements that vary with species, age, weight and production stage.

Animal welfare principles (five freedoms) cover freedom from hunger, discomfort, pain, fear and the freedom to express normal behaviour.

Identification and registration of livestock (ear tags, holding registers) underpin traceability and are mandatory in EU animal health law.

Colostrum intake in the first hours of life provides passive immunity; failure of passive transfer raises neonatal mortality.

Gross margin = gross output (sales plus subsidies tied to output) − variable costs; fixed costs are excluded and treated at the whole-farm level.

Farm profit = total revenue − total costs; break-even yield = total costs / price per unit of output.

Partial budget analysis compares added returns and reduced costs against added costs and reduced returns to evaluate a single change.

Opportunity cost is the value of the next best alternative forgone; it belongs in decisions even when no cash outlay occurs.

Depreciation allocates the cost of durable assets over their useful life; straight-line = (cost − salvage value) / years.

Working capital is current assets minus current liabilities; a positive value supports seasonal cash flow before harvest receipts.

Elasticity of demand = % change in quantity demanded / % change in price; inelastic demand means price swings cause larger revenue swings.

Cost-benefit analysis discounts future flows: NPV = Σ cash flow / (1 + r)^t; accept projects with positive NPV.

Reference evapotranspiration (ET0) is computed by the FAO Penman-Monteith equation; crop ET = ET0 × Kc, with Kc varying by growth stage.

Net irrigation requirement = crop ET − effective rainfall − soil water contribution; gross requirement = net / irrigation efficiency.

Irrigation efficiency losses: conveyance, distribution, application and evaporation; drip and subsurface systems typically achieve higher application efficiency than surface flooding.

Soil moisture tension measured by tensiometers indicates when to irrigate; a common trigger for many crops is around −30 to −50 kPa in the root zone.

Leaching requirement for salinity control = (EC of irrigation water / (EC of drainage water − EC of irrigation water)) × crop ET.

Pump power requirement (kW) ≈ (flow m³/s × head m × density kg/m³ × 9.81) / (1000 × efficiency).

Sprinkler uniformity is described by the Christiansen uniformity coefficient; values below about 80% indicate uneven application requiring adjustment.

Water footprint of production is the volume of water used per unit of product; irrigation scheduling and deficit strategies reduce it.

CAP has two pillars: Pillar I direct payments and market measures, financed by the EAGF; Pillar II rural development, co-financed through the EAFRD.

Direct payments are subject to cross-compliance: statutory management requirements and good agricultural and environmental condition (GAEC) standards.

Decoupled payments are based on entitlements or hectares rather than current production, so they do not directly reward output.

The CAP Strategic Plan (2023–2027) merges Pillar I and Pillar II measures into a single national plan with eco-schemes and enhanced conditionality.

Eco-schemes are voluntary annual payments for climate- and environment-friendly practices above mandatory requirements.

Market measures include public intervention, private storage aid, and exceptional support in crises such as disease outbreaks or market disruption.

Rural development priorities include knowledge transfer, competitiveness, food chain organisation, resource efficiency and social inclusion in rural areas.

The European Agricultural Guarantee Fund finances direct payments and market measures; the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development finances rural development programmes.

HACCP has seven principles: hazard analysis, CCP identification, critical limits, monitoring, corrective actions, verification and record keeping.

A critical control point is a step where control is essential to prevent, eliminate or reduce a significant hazard to an acceptable level.

EU Regulation 178/2002 sets general food law: risk analysis, traceability one step back and one step forward, and rapid alert system duties.

Hygiene Regulation (EC) 852/2004 requires food business operators to implement procedures based on HACCP principles.

Maximum residue limits (MRLs) are set under Regulation (EC) 396/2005 for pesticide residues in or on food and feed of plant and animal origin.

Microbiological criteria under Regulation (EC) 2073/2005 set limits for pathogens such as Salmonella and Listeria in specified food categories.

ISO 22000 specifies requirements for a food safety management system combining HACCP principles with prerequisite programmes.

GlobalG.A.P. is a voluntary certification scheme covering on-farm practices, traceability and worker health; it is not an EU legal requirement.

Nitrates Directive (91/676/EEC) limits livestock manure nitrogen application to 170 kg N/ha per year in designated vulnerable zones, with possible derogations.

Buffer strips along watercourses reduce nutrient and pesticide runoff; widths typically range from 2 to 20 m depending on national rules.

Agrobiodiversity includes crop and livestock genetic diversity plus associated wild species; field margins, hedgerows and fallows support beneficial insects and pollinators.

Integrated pest management is mandatory under the Sustainable Use of Pesticides Directive (2009/128/EC); non-chemical methods must be prioritised where feasible.

Greenhouse gas sources in agriculture are enteric methane, manure management, and nitrous oxide from fertilizer and soil; nitrous oxide has a high global warming potential.

Carbon sequestration in soils increases with organic matter inputs, reduced tillage and cover crops, but the effect can saturate over time.

Erosion risk rises with slope, low ground cover and high rainfall intensity; contour cultivation and cover crops reduce soil loss.

Natura 2000 sites protect habitats and species; agricultural activities within them may require assessment and specific management conditions.

Administrative act elements: competent authority, legal basis, statement of reasons, notification to the interested party, and indication of appeal remedies.

Principle of legality: administrative action must have a legal basis and cannot exceed the powers conferred by law.

Proportionality requires that measures be suitable, necessary and not excessive relative to the aim pursued.

Right to be heard (audi alteram partem) obliges the administration to allow affected parties to express views before an adverse decision.

Reasoning obligation: decisions must state the factual and legal grounds so that judicial review is possible.

Time limits for appeals and administrative recourses are statutory; missing them generally makes the decision final.

Conflict of interest rules require officials to withdraw from matters in which they have a personal or financial interest.

Access to documents and transparency are governed by rules on public access; exceptions must be narrowly interpreted and justified.

Maladministration includes delay, failure to give reasons, discrimination and misuse of power; ombudsman or supervisory bodies may investigate.

C3 photosynthesis: CO2 fixed by RuBisCO into 3-phosphoglycerate in mesophyll cells; photorespiration rises above ~25 °C, lowering net assimilation.

C4 photosynthesis separates initial fixation (PEP carboxylase, mesophyll) from the Calvin cycle (bundle-sheath cells), reducing photorespiration in hot, high-light conditions.

CAM plants fix CO2 at night into malate stored in vacuoles and decarboxylate it by day; stomata closed in daylight cut transpiration losses.

Growing degree days (GDD) = Σ[(Tmax + Tmin)/2 − Tbase] using daily values above Tbase; used to time sowing, irrigation and pest emergence.

Leaf area index (LAI) = total one-sided leaf area per unit ground area; crop light interception saturates near LAI 4–6 in many field crops.

Harvest index = economic yield / total above-ground biological yield; breeding gains in cereals often come from raising harvest index rather than biomass.

Seed germination requires water uptake, suitable temperature and oxygen; for many species the sequence is imbibition, enzyme activation, radicle emergence, then shoot emergence.

Crop rotation with legumes interrupts soil-borne pathogen cycles and adds biologically fixed N; cereal-after-legume sequences typically reduce fertilizer N need.

Vernalization is cold exposure required for flowering in winter cereals; without it, cultivars stay vegetative or flower late, so sowing date matters.

Soil texture classes follow the particle-size triangle: sand 2.0–0.05 mm, silt 0.05–0.002 mm, clay <0.002 mm (international scheme varies slightly).

Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is the sum of exchangeable cations per mass of soil, usually cmol(+)/kg; clay type and organic matter are the main determinants.

Base saturation = (exchangeable Ca + Mg + K + Na) / CEC × 100; low base saturation signals acidity and possible lime requirement.

Soil pH controls nutrient availability: P is most available at pH 6.0–7.0; Fe, Mn, Zn and B become deficient at high pH; Al and Mn toxicity appear at low pH.

Lime requirement is estimated by buffer-pH or exchangeable-acidity methods; the target is usually pH 6.0–6.5 for most arable crops, higher for some legumes.

N mineralization from organic matter depends on C:N ratio; materials above about 25:1 immobilize N, below about 20:1 release it.

Bulk density = oven-dry soil mass / total volume; high bulk density indicates compaction and restricts root penetration and water infiltration.

Available water capacity = water held between field capacity (−33 kPa) and permanent wilting point (−1500 kPa); sandy soils hold less than clayey or organic soils.

The Liebig law of the minimum: yield is limited by the scarcest essential nutrient, so correcting other nutrients without it gives no response.

Economic injury level (EIL) is the pest density at which control cost equals crop loss; economic threshold is the density triggering action, set below EIL.

Integrated pest management hierarchy: prevention, monitoring, biological control, cultural and mechanical methods, then chemical control as a last resort.

Insecticide resistance management relies on mode-of-action rotation (IRAC groups), refuges and not exceeding label application frequency.

Koch's postulates link a suspect pathogen to a disease: consistent association, isolation in pure culture, inoculation reproducing symptoms, re-isolation.

Obligate biotrophs (powdery and downy mildews, rusts) cannot be cultured on artificial media; diagnosis relies on signs and symptoms.

Weed competition is most damaging early in the season; the critical period of weed control is the interval during which weeds must be removed to prevent yield loss.

Herbicide resistance management: rotate sites of action (HRAC groups), use tank or sequence mixes with effective partners, and integrate mechanical and cultural control.

Quarantine pests are regulated organisms whose introduction or spread is prohibited; they trigger official control measures and notification obligations.

Biological control agents include predators, parasitoids and microbial biopesticides such as Bacillus thuringiensis against lepidopteran larvae.

Ruminant digestion: rumen microbes ferment cellulose to volatile fatty acids; microbial protein supplies amino acids, so dietary protein quality matters less than for monogastrics.

Dry matter intake and feed conversion ratio (kg feed / kg gain) are core efficiency indicators; lower FCR means more efficient production.

Main zoonoses relevant to farm production include brucellosis, salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis, tuberculosis and echinococcosis; control combines herd health and hygiene.

Milk withdrawal periods after antibiotic treatment must be observed; residues above maximum residue limits make milk unfit for human consumption.

Ration formulation balances energy, protein, minerals and vitamins against requirements that vary with species, age, weight and production stage.

Animal welfare principles (five freedoms) cover freedom from hunger, discomfort, pain, fear and the freedom to express normal behaviour.

Identification and registration of livestock (ear tags, holding registers) underpin traceability and are mandatory in EU animal health law.

Colostrum intake in the first hours of life provides passive immunity; failure of passive transfer raises neonatal mortality.

Gross margin = gross output (sales plus subsidies tied to output) − variable costs; fixed costs are excluded and treated at the whole-farm level.

Farm profit = total revenue − total costs; break-even yield = total costs / price per unit of output.

Partial budget analysis compares added returns and reduced costs against added costs and reduced returns to evaluate a single change.

Opportunity cost is the value of the next best alternative forgone; it belongs in decisions even when no cash outlay occurs.

Depreciation allocates the cost of durable assets over their useful life; straight-line = (cost − salvage value) / years.

Working capital is current assets minus current liabilities; a positive value supports seasonal cash flow before harvest receipts.

Elasticity of demand = % change in quantity demanded / % change in price; inelastic demand means price swings cause larger revenue swings.

Cost-benefit analysis discounts future flows: NPV = Σ cash flow / (1 + r)^t; accept projects with positive NPV.

Reference evapotranspiration (ET0) is computed by the FAO Penman-Monteith equation; crop ET = ET0 × Kc, with Kc varying by growth stage.

Net irrigation requirement = crop ET − effective rainfall − soil water contribution; gross requirement = net / irrigation efficiency.

Irrigation efficiency losses: conveyance, distribution, application and evaporation; drip and subsurface systems typically achieve higher application efficiency than surface flooding.

Soil moisture tension measured by tensiometers indicates when to irrigate; a common trigger for many crops is around −30 to −50 kPa in the root zone.

Leaching requirement for salinity control = (EC of irrigation water / (EC of drainage water − EC of irrigation water)) × crop ET.

Pump power requirement (kW) ≈ (flow m³/s × head m × density kg/m³ × 9.81) / (1000 × efficiency).

Sprinkler uniformity is described by the Christiansen uniformity coefficient; values below about 80% indicate uneven application requiring adjustment.

Water footprint of production is the volume of water used per unit of product; irrigation scheduling and deficit strategies reduce it.

CAP has two pillars: Pillar I direct payments and market measures, financed by the EAGF; Pillar II rural development, co-financed through the EAFRD.

Direct payments are subject to cross-compliance: statutory management requirements and good agricultural and environmental condition (GAEC) standards.

Decoupled payments are based on entitlements or hectares rather than current production, so they do not directly reward output.

The CAP Strategic Plan (2023–2027) merges Pillar I and Pillar II measures into a single national plan with eco-schemes and enhanced conditionality.

Eco-schemes are voluntary annual payments for climate- and environment-friendly practices above mandatory requirements.

Market measures include public intervention, private storage aid, and exceptional support in crises such as disease outbreaks or market disruption.

Rural development priorities include knowledge transfer, competitiveness, food chain organisation, resource efficiency and social inclusion in rural areas.

The European Agricultural Guarantee Fund finances direct payments and market measures; the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development finances rural development programmes.

HACCP has seven principles: hazard analysis, CCP identification, critical limits, monitoring, corrective actions, verification and record keeping.

A critical control point is a step where control is essential to prevent, eliminate or reduce a significant hazard to an acceptable level.

EU Regulation 178/2002 sets general food law: risk analysis, traceability one step back and one step forward, and rapid alert system duties.

Hygiene Regulation (EC) 852/2004 requires food business operators to implement procedures based on HACCP principles.

Maximum residue limits (MRLs) are set under Regulation (EC) 396/2005 for pesticide residues in or on food and feed of plant and animal origin.

Microbiological criteria under Regulation (EC) 2073/2005 set limits for pathogens such as Salmonella and Listeria in specified food categories.

ISO 22000 specifies requirements for a food safety management system combining HACCP principles with prerequisite programmes.

GlobalG.A.P. is a voluntary certification scheme covering on-farm practices, traceability and worker health; it is not an EU legal requirement.

Nitrates Directive (91/676/EEC) limits livestock manure nitrogen application to 170 kg N/ha per year in designated vulnerable zones, with possible derogations.

Buffer strips along watercourses reduce nutrient and pesticide runoff; widths typically range from 2 to 20 m depending on national rules.

Agrobiodiversity includes crop and livestock genetic diversity plus associated wild species; field margins, hedgerows and fallows support beneficial insects and pollinators.

Integrated pest management is mandatory under the Sustainable Use of Pesticides Directive (2009/128/EC); non-chemical methods must be prioritised where feasible.

Greenhouse gas sources in agriculture are enteric methane, manure management, and nitrous oxide from fertilizer and soil; nitrous oxide has a high global warming potential.

Carbon sequestration in soils increases with organic matter inputs, reduced tillage and cover crops, but the effect can saturate over time.

Erosion risk rises with slope, low ground cover and high rainfall intensity; contour cultivation and cover crops reduce soil loss.

Natura 2000 sites protect habitats and species; agricultural activities within them may require assessment and specific management conditions.

Administrative act elements: competent authority, legal basis, statement of reasons, notification to the interested party, and indication of appeal remedies.

Principle of legality: administrative action must have a legal basis and cannot exceed the powers conferred by law.

Proportionality requires that measures be suitable, necessary and not excessive relative to the aim pursued.

Right to be heard (audi alteram partem) obliges the administration to allow affected parties to express views before an adverse decision.

Reasoning obligation: decisions must state the factual and legal grounds so that judicial review is possible.

Time limits for appeals and administrative recourses are statutory; missing them generally makes the decision final.

Conflict of interest rules require officials to withdraw from matters in which they have a personal or financial interest.

Access to documents and transparency are governed by rules on public access; exceptions must be narrowly interpreted and justified.

Maladministration includes delay, failure to give reasons, discrimination and misuse of power; ombudsman or supervisory bodies may investigate.