Scio NSZ English key terms

A step-by-step way of gaining knowledge: observe a problem, form a testable hypothesis, run controlled experiments, analyze the results, and revise the explanation when evidence disagrees with it.

A precise, testable statement predicting how two or more factors are related, phrased so that observations could prove it wrong rather than merely confirm it.

Any characteristic, quantity, or condition that can differ between cases or change over time within one case, such as temperature, age, or reaction time.

The factor a researcher deliberately changes or selects across conditions in order to observe whether it produces an effect on the outcome being measured.

The outcome that is measured in an experiment; its value is expected to respond to changes in the factor the researcher manipulates.

A comparison group that receives no treatment or a neutral treatment, so that any difference in the measured outcome can be attributed to the manipulated factor instead of chance.

Assigning participants or trials to conditions by chance, which spreads unknown differences evenly across groups and reduces the risk that results reflect pre-existing bias.

An unmeasured factor that is linked both to the manipulated factor and to the outcome, creating a false impression that the two are directly connected.

A concrete statement of how a concept will be measured or produced in a particular study, turning an abstract idea into observable procedures other researchers could repeat.

The consistency of a measurement or procedure: repeating it under the same conditions yields similar results, whether or not it actually captures the intended concept.

The degree to which a measurement, test, or study design actually captures or demonstrates what it claims to, rather than something related but different.

A statistical relationship in which two variables tend to move together, either in the same direction or in opposite directions, without by itself establishing that one causes the other.

A relationship in which a change in one factor genuinely produces a change in another, supported by evidence such as controlled manipulation, temporal order, and ruling out alternative explanations.

A result is statistically significant when the observed pattern is unlikely to have arisen by chance alone under a stated probability threshold, usually five percent.

The number of observations or participants included in a study; larger samples generally give more stable estimates and greater ability to detect real effects.

Evaluation of a research report by independent experts in the same field before publication, intended to catch errors, unsupported claims, and methodological weaknesses.

The property of a claim being stated so precisely that some conceivable observation could contradict it; claims compatible with every possible outcome are not scientifically testable.

Repeating a study with new data, ideally by independent researchers, to check whether the original finding holds up rather than being a fluke or an artifact of one sample.

Information gathered through direct observation, measurement, or experiment rather than through reasoning alone, tradition, or the authority of a speaker.

Principles governing studies involving people or animals, including informed consent, minimal harm, confidentiality, honest reporting, and review by an independent oversight body.

Agreement to take part in research given voluntarily by a person who understands the purpose, procedures, risks, and right to withdraw at any time.

The obligation to protect participants' identifying information from unauthorized access or disclosure, usually by storing data securely and reporting results in aggregate form.

A systematic distortion in how data are collected, analyzed, or interpreted that pushes results in a particular direction, as opposed to random error that scatters both ways.

The procedure used to select which cases enter a study; random selection supports generalization to a wider population, while convenience selection often does not.

The inference that findings from a studied sample apply to a broader population or to other settings, which depends on how representative the sample and conditions are.

The lifelong process through which people learn the norms, values, language, and skills of their society, mainly via family, school, peers, and media.

The shared beliefs, values, customs, symbols, and material objects that members of a group transmit across generations and use to interpret experience.

A shared expectation about how members of a group ought to behave in a given situation, enforced informally through approval or disapproval and sometimes formally through rules.

A reward for conforming to a norm or a penalty for violating it, ranging from informal reactions such as praise or ridicule to formal measures such as fines or imprisonment.

The set of behaviors, obligations, and expectations attached to a particular social position, such as parent, student, or employee.

A recognized social position a person occupies, which may be assigned at birth or acquired through effort, and which carries differing prestige and expectations.

The ranking of people into hierarchical layers that differ in wealth, power, and prestige, producing unequal access to valued resources and life chances.

Movement of individuals or groups between positions in a stratification system, either upward or downward and either within one lifetime or across generations.

A broad grouping of people who share similar economic resources, occupations, and lifestyles, shaping opportunities, consumption patterns, and political outlooks.

Behavior that violates significant social norms and therefore tends to draw disapproval, correction, or punishment from others in the group.

The mechanisms, formal and informal, by which a group encourages conformity and discourages behavior that threatens its order, including laws, schooling, and everyday disapproval.

Judging another culture by the standards of one's own and treating one's own as normal or superior, which often leads to misunderstanding and prejudice.

The principle of understanding a group's beliefs and practices within its own cultural context rather than evaluating them by the standards of another culture.

A preconceived attitude, usually negative, toward members of a group, formed without adequate information and resistant to contrary evidence.

Unequal treatment of people based on their group membership, shown in hiring, housing, education, or services rather than merely in attitudes.

An oversimplified, generalized image of a group that attributes the same traits to all its members and ignores variation among individuals.