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Hamburg Abitur Philosophy study materials
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Hamburg Abitur Philosophy practice questions

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Question 1Knowledge,reality andargument

What is 'Rationalismus' (rationalism), an epistemological position associated with René Descartes?

  1. The view that reason, rather than sensory experience, is the primary source of genuine knowledge Correct answer.
  2. The view that sensory experience alone, with no role for reason, is the primary source of knowledge
  3. A term unrelated to epistemology
  4. A view claiming that no genuine knowledge is possible under any circumstances

Explanation

Rationalism holds that reason, rather than sensory experience, is the primary source of genuine knowledge - significantly associated with René Descartes, who emphasized innate ideas and deductive reasoning as reliable paths to certain truth.

Question 2Knowledge,reality andargument

What is 'Empirismus' (empiricism), an epistemological position associated with John Locke and David Hume?

  1. The view that sensory experience is the primary source of genuine knowledge Correct answer.
  2. The view that reason alone, with no role for sensory experience, is the primary source of knowledge
  3. A term unrelated to epistemology
  4. A view claiming humans are born with fully formed innate knowledge of all things

Explanation

Empiricism holds that sensory experience is the primary source of genuine knowledge - significantly associated with John Locke and David Hume, who argued against innate ideas in favor of knowledge derived from observation and experience.

Question 3Knowledge,reality andargument

What is 'methodischer Zweifel' (methodological doubt), a technique employed by Descartes in his 'Meditations'?

  1. A systematic process of doubting all beliefs that could conceivably be false, in order to find a foundation of absolutely certain knowledge Correct answer.
  2. A permanent state of doubting everything with no possibility of ever reaching any certain conclusion
  3. A term unrelated to epistemology
  4. A technique requiring belief in every possible claim without any critical examination whatsoever

Explanation

Methodological doubt is a systematic process, employed by Descartes, of doubting all beliefs that could conceivably be false (even those seeming obviously true) in order to find a foundation of absolutely certain, indubitable knowledge upon which to rebuild reliable knowledge - culminating in his famous 'cogito ergo sum'.

Question 4Knowledge,reality andargument

What is 'cogito ergo sum' ('I think, therefore I am'), Descartes's foundational certain truth discovered through methodological doubt?

  1. The realization that the very act of doubting/thinking proves the existence of a thinking self, providing an indubitable foundation for knowledge Correct answer.
  2. A claim that thinking has no connection whatsoever to proving one's own existence
  3. A term unrelated to epistemology
  4. A conclusion Descartes rejected as false and unreliable

Explanation

'Cogito ergo sum' is Descartes's realization that the very act of doubting or thinking necessarily proves the existence of a thinking self (since doubt/thought cannot occur without a doubter/thinker existing), providing an indubitable foundation upon which he sought to rebuild certain knowledge.

Question 5Knowledge,reality andargument

What is 'Tabula Rasa' ('blank slate'), a concept associated with John Locke's empiricist theory of mind?

  1. The idea that the human mind begins entirely empty at birth, with all knowledge subsequently acquired through sensory experience Correct answer.
  2. The idea that the human mind is born fully filled with complete, innate knowledge requiring no further experience
  3. A term unrelated to epistemology
  4. A concept describing only a specific type of ancient writing material, with no philosophical meaning

Explanation

'Tabula Rasa' (blank slate) is Locke's concept that the human mind begins entirely empty at birth, with all knowledge and ideas subsequently acquired through sensory experience - a foundational metaphor for empiricist epistemology, opposing rationalist claims of innate ideas.

Question 6Human beings,freedom andsociety

What is 'Leib-Seele-Problem' (mind-body problem), a foundational question in philosophy of mind?

  1. The question of how the mind (mental, subjective experience) relates to the physical body/brain (material substance) Correct answer.
  2. A question concerning only the physical anatomy of the human body, with no connection to mental experience
  3. A term unrelated to philosophy of mind
  4. A problem that has been definitively and universally solved with complete philosophical consensus

Explanation

The mind-body problem asks how the mind (mental states, subjective experience, consciousness) relates to the physical body/brain (material substance) - a foundational question in philosophy of mind, significantly shaped by Descartes's dualist position.

Question 7Human beings,freedom andsociety

What is 'Substanzdualismus' (substance dualism), Descartes's position on the mind-body relationship?

  1. The view that mind and body are two fundamentally distinct types of substance - mind being non-physical/thinking substance, body being physical/extended substance Correct answer.
  2. The view that mind and body are actually identical, made of exactly the same physical substance with no distinction
  3. A term unrelated to philosophy of mind
  4. A view that denies the existence of the physical body entirely

Explanation

Substance dualism, associated with Descartes, holds that mind and body are two fundamentally distinct types of substance - the mind being non-physical, thinking substance ('res cogitans'), and the body being physical, extended substance ('res extensa') - raising the significant challenge of explaining how these two distinct substances interact.

Question 8Human beings,freedom andsociety

What is 'Materialismus' (materialism/physicalism), a position on the mind-body problem contrasting with dualism?

  1. The view that only physical matter exists, and mental states are ultimately identical to or fully explainable by physical brain processes Correct answer.
  2. The view that only mental/non-physical substance exists, with no physical reality whatsoever
  3. A term unrelated to philosophy of mind
  4. A view identical in every respect to substance dualism, with no distinguishing features

Explanation

Materialism (physicalism) holds that only physical matter exists, and mental states are ultimately identical to or fully explainable by physical brain processes - a monist position (positing only one fundamental substance type) contrasting directly with Cartesian dualism's two-substance view.

Question 9Human beings,freedom andsociety

What is 'Qualia' (qualia), a significant concept in philosophy of mind referring to the subjective, felt quality of conscious experience?

  1. The subjective, first-person, felt qualities of conscious experience, such as the specific way redness or pain feels to the experiencing subject Correct answer.
  2. A term describing only objective, third-person, measurable physical brain states, with no subjective dimension
  3. A term unrelated to philosophy of mind
  4. A concept that applies exclusively to visual experience, never to other senses like touch or smell

Explanation

Qualia are the subjective, first-person, felt qualities of conscious experience - such as the specific way redness or pain feels to the experiencing subject - raising significant philosophical challenges about whether such subjective experience can be fully explained by objective physical/scientific description alone.

Question 10Human beings,freedom andsociety

What is 'personale Identität' (personal identity), a significant question in philosophical anthropology asking what makes a person the 'same' person over time?

  1. The philosophical question of what criteria determine that a person remains the same individual despite physical and psychological changes over time Correct answer.
  2. A question concerning only a person's legal documentation (passport, ID card), with no deeper philosophical content
  3. A term unrelated to philosophy of mind or anthropology
  4. A question that has never been discussed or debated by any philosopher throughout history

Explanation

Personal identity asks what criteria determine that a person remains the 'same' individual despite significant physical and psychological changes over time (aging, changing beliefs, memory changes) - a significant philosophical anthropology question, with theories including bodily continuity, psychological/memory continuity (Locke), and others.

Question 11Moral theories andjustification

What is 'Deontologie' (deontological ethics), the ethical framework most associated with Immanuel Kant?

  1. An ethical theory judging the morality of an action based on whether it conforms to a moral duty or rule, regardless of its consequences Correct answer.
  2. An ethical theory judging actions solely by their outcomes or consequences
  3. A term unrelated to ethical theory
  4. An ethical theory that denies any moral duties exist whatsoever

Explanation

Deontological ethics judges the morality of an action based on whether it conforms to a moral duty or rule, regardless of its consequences - most prominently associated with Immanuel Kant's categorical imperative.

Question 12Moral theories andjustification

What is Kant's 'kategorischer Imperativ' (categorical imperative), in its most well-known formulation?

  1. Act only according to that maxim by which you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law Correct answer.
  2. Act only in ways that maximize your own personal happiness, regardless of the effect on others
  3. A term unrelated to ethical theory
  4. Act only according to rules explicitly established by existing civil law

Explanation

Kant's categorical imperative, in its universal law formulation, states: 'Act only according to that maxim by which you can, at the same time, will that it should become a universal law' - a test for the moral permissibility of an action based on whether its underlying principle could be consistently universalized.

Question 13Moral theories andjustification

What is the 'Selbstzweckformel' (humanity/end-in-itself formula), Kant's second major formulation of the categorical imperative?

  1. Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in another, always as an end and never merely as a means Correct answer.
  2. Act so that you treat other people purely as tools to achieve your own personal goals
  3. A term unrelated to Kantian ethics
  4. Act so that only your own personal wellbeing matters, with others treated as irrelevant

Explanation

Kant's humanity formula states: 'Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in another, always as an end and never merely as a means' - emphasizing the inherent dignity and worth of persons, who should not be merely instrumentalized for others' purposes.

Question 14Moral theories andjustification

What is 'Utilitarismus' (utilitarianism), the ethical framework associated with Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill?

  1. A consequentialist ethical theory holding that the right action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or wellbeing for the greatest number of people Correct answer.
  2. A theory holding that only the actor's own personal happiness matters, with no regard for others
  3. A term unrelated to ethical theory
  4. A theory that judges actions solely by their conformity to fixed moral duties, regardless of outcome

Explanation

Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical theory holding that the right action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or wellbeing for the greatest number of people ('the greatest happiness principle'), associated with Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.

Question 15Moral theories andjustification

What distinguishes 'Handlungsutilitarismus' (act utilitarianism) from 'Regelutilitarismus' (rule utilitarianism)?

  1. Act utilitarianism evaluates each individual action by its specific consequences; rule utilitarianism evaluates actions by whether they conform to a rule that would generally maximize good consequences if followed Correct answer.
  2. Act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism are identical, with no meaningful distinction between them
  3. A term unrelated to utilitarian ethical theory
  4. Rule utilitarianism rejects considering consequences entirely, focusing only on rigid duties

Explanation

Act utilitarianism evaluates each individual action by its specific consequences in that particular situation; rule utilitarianism evaluates actions by whether they conform to a general rule that would tend to maximize good consequences if consistently followed - a significant internal distinction within utilitarian theory.

Question 16Applied ethics andresponsibility

What is 'Schwangerschaftsabbruch' (abortion) as an applied ethics topic, and a key point of philosophical contention?

  1. The moral status and rights of the fetus versus the autonomy and rights of the pregnant person, a central and contested question in applied ethics debate Correct answer.
  2. A topic with no meaningful ethical dimension or philosophical debate whatsoever
  3. A term unrelated to applied ethics
  4. A topic on which all ethical theories reach an identical, unanimous conclusion

Explanation

Abortion as an applied ethics topic centers on the contested question of the moral status and rights of the fetus (personhood, moral consideration) versus the autonomy and rights of the pregnant person - a central, actively debated question drawing on multiple ethical frameworks (deontology, consequentialism, virtue ethics).

Question 17Applied ethics andresponsibility

What is the distinction between 'aktive' (active) and 'passive Sterbehilfe' (passive euthanasia)?

  1. Active euthanasia involves deliberately taking action to end a life; passive euthanasia involves withholding or withdrawing life-sustaining treatment, allowing death to occur Correct answer.
  2. Active and passive euthanasia refer to exactly the same practice, with no meaningful ethical or legal distinction
  3. A term unrelated to bioethics
  4. Passive euthanasia refers exclusively to euthanizing animals, never humans

Explanation

Active euthanasia involves deliberately taking action (e.g., administering a lethal substance) to end a life; passive euthanasia involves withholding or withdrawing life-sustaining treatment, allowing death to occur naturally - a distinction with significant ethical and legal implications in different jurisdictions.

Question 18Applied ethics andresponsibility

What is a key ethical concern raised regarding 'Gentechnik' (genetic engineering) technologies like CRISPR gene editing?

  1. Concerns about unintended consequences, equitable access, and the ethical limits of altering human genetic makeup, including questions of consent for future generations Correct answer.
  2. A concern that genetic engineering technology does not actually exist and is purely science fiction
  3. A term unrelated to bioethics
  4. A universal agreement among all ethicists that genetic engineering has no ethical concerns whatsoever

Explanation

Key ethical concerns regarding genetic engineering (like CRISPR) include unintended consequences, equitable access to the technology, and the ethical limits of altering human genetic makeup - including consent questions for future generations who cannot consent to inherited genetic changes.

Question 19Applied ethics andresponsibility

What is the ethical debate between 'Widerspruchslösung' (opt-out) and 'Zustimmungslösung' (opt-in) systems for organ donation?

  1. Opt-out systems presume consent to donation unless a person explicitly registers refusal; opt-in systems require explicit registered consent before donation is permitted Correct answer.
  2. Opt-out and opt-in systems are functionally and ethically identical, with no meaningful difference
  3. A term unrelated to bioethics
  4. Opt-out systems make organ donation illegal under all circumstances

Explanation

Opt-out (Widerspruchslösung) systems presume consent to organ donation unless a person explicitly registers their refusal; opt-in (Zustimmungslösung) systems require explicit, registered consent before donation is permitted - a significant policy and ethical debate concerning autonomy, presumed consent, and organ shortage.

Question 20Applied ethics andresponsibility

What is 'Speziesismus' (speciesism), a concept introduced by philosopher Peter Singer relevant to animal ethics?

  1. The unjustified assignment of different moral status or consideration to beings based solely on their species membership Correct answer.
  2. A term describing the scientific classification of different animal species, with no ethical content
  3. A term unrelated to applied ethics
  4. A concept that applies exclusively to plants, never to animals

Explanation

Speciesism, a term popularized by philosopher Peter Singer, describes the unjustified assignment of different moral status or consideration to beings based solely on their species membership - analogous to other forms of unjustified discrimination like racism or sexism, according to Singer's critique.

Question 21Moral theories andjustification

What is the Sein–Sollen-Problem (is–ought problem) in ethics?

  1. The claim that every scientific fact is already a moral duty
  2. The difficulty of validly deriving normative ‘ought’ conclusions from purely descriptive ‘is’ premises Correct answer.
  3. The rule that ‘ought’ statements are identical to empirical measurements
  4. The thesis that moral language has no meaning at all

Explanation

The Sein–Sollen-Problem (associated with Hume’s insight) concerns whether and how one can validly move from descriptive statements about what is the case to normative statements about what ought to be done.

Question 22Moral theories andjustification

Which statement is descriptive rather than normative?

  1. You ought to keep promises
  2. Torture is morally wrong
  3. In 2024, country X reported a homicide rate of Y per 100,000 Correct answer.
  4. Everyone must respect human dignity

Explanation

A descriptive judgment reports what is the case (here a statistical claim). The others express or imply normative evaluations or duties.

Question 23Moral theories andjustification

Which statement is normative rather than merely descriptive?

  1. Water boils at about 100°C at standard pressure
  2. Many cultures practise gift exchange
  3. The manuscript was written in 1785
  4. One should not break a promise without overriding reasons Correct answer.

Explanation

‘One should…’ expresses a normative claim about what is required or recommended, not a bare report of facts.

Question 24Moral theories andjustification

What is the naturalistic fallacy in the sense relevant to Hamburg’s ethics Inhaltsfelder?

  1. Illicitly identifying or deriving moral properties/values from purely natural/descriptive properties without justification Correct answer.
  2. Any use of examples in moral argument
  3. The claim that nature never changes
  4. Preferring outdoor ethics seminars

Explanation

In this curriculum cluster, the naturalistic fallacy concerns illicit moves that treat moral ‘good’ as simply identical to, or straightforwardly read off from, natural/descriptive properties without adequate justification (linked to Sein–Sollen worries).

Question 25Moral theories andjustification

A speaker argues: ‘Most people desire pleasure; therefore pleasure is morally good.’ Which problem is most directly illustrated?

  1. A careful inductive scientific method with no ethical issue
  2. A leap from common desire (descriptive) to moral goodness (normative) that risks the Sein–Sollen / naturalistic-fallacy cluster Correct answer.
  3. A purely formal contradiction in propositional logic unrelated to ethics
  4. An appeal to authority of a named philosopher only

Explanation

The argument moves from what people desire (descriptive) to what is morally good (normative) without a justifying bridge-exactly the is–ought / naturalistic-fallacy concern named in the A-Heft contents.

Question 26Moral theories andjustification

What does Werterelativismus (value relativism) typically claim?

  1. Moral values and norms are absolute and identical for all cultures at all times
  2. Only mathematical values exist
  3. Moral rightness is relative to cultural or individual standards, so there is no culture-transcendent moral truth Correct answer.
  4. Ethics is identical to physics

Explanation

Value relativism holds that moral judgments are relative to cultural or individual frameworks rather than objectively binding across all standpoints.

Question 27Moral theories andjustification

Which challenge is often raised against strong cultural relativism in Abitur-level ethics?

  1. It proves that all cultures share identical laws
  2. It entails that descriptive anthropology is impossible
  3. It forces every relativist to become a utilitarian
  4. It may undermine cross-cultural moral criticism (e.g. of rights violations) by making ‘right for them’ the final word Correct answer.

Explanation

If ‘right’ means only ‘right by local standards,’ then external criticism of oppressive practices becomes hard to justify- a standard problematisation of strong relativism.

Question 28Moral theories andjustification

What characterises a deontological approach to ethics?

  1. Moral rightness depends on duty, rules, or the form of the maxim, not solely on outcomes Correct answer.
  2. Only consequences of actions determine rightness
  3. Pleasure maximisation is the sole criterion
  4. No rules ever matter

Explanation

Deontological approaches (e.g. Kantian) assess actions by conformity to duty/rules or the universalizable form of the maxim, not solely by consequences.

Question 29Moral theories andjustification

Kant’s Formula of Universal Law most closely supports which kind of ethical approach?

  1. Always maximise net pleasure regardless of maxim form
  2. Obey whatever your culture currently prefers
  3. Act only on maxims you can will as universal law - a deontological test Correct answer.
  4. Ignore reasons and follow impulse

Explanation

Kant’s universal-law formulation is a classic deontological criterion: maxims must be universalizable as law, not justified solely by contingent outcomes.

Question 30Moral theories andjustification

How do deontological and consequentialist approaches typically diverge on ‘lying to save a life’?

  1. Deontology may forbid lying as a duty violation; consequentialism may permit lying if outcomes are better overall Correct answer.
  2. Both always give identical verdicts for every case
  3. Consequentialism forbids all lying; deontology always requires lying
  4. Neither approach ever discusses lying

Explanation

Classic contrast: some deontological readings treat lying as impermissible regardless of rescue outcomes; consequentialists ask whether lying produces better overall results.

Question 31Moral theories andjustification

What are ‘Werte’ and ‘Normen’ in the ethics Inhaltsfeld?

  1. Werte are only stock prices; Normen are only grammar rules
  2. Werte are evaluative standards of the good/important; Normen are action-guiding rules or expectations Correct answer.
  3. They are synonyms for ‘atoms’
  4. They refer only to legal paragraphs in the BGB

Explanation

In philosophical ethics, values (Werte) concern what is held good/important; norms (Normen) guide what one may/must/should do. Legal norms are one species, not the whole.

Question 32Moral theories andjustification

Why is semantic analysis of moral judgments relevant to eA metaethics?

  1. Because semantics replaces all need for arguments about reasons
  2. Because moral words have no use in language
  3. Because A-Heft forbids discussing meaning
  4. Because clarifying what moral terms mean and how judgments function is a step toward assessing whether rational justification is possible Correct answer.

Explanation

The Additum pairs semantic analysis of moral judgments with questions of rational Rechtfertigung-analysis of meaning/use supports, rather than replaces, discourse about justification.

Question 33Moral theories andjustification

Ernst Tugendhat’s marked lectures for eA ethics primarily serve which curricular aim?

  1. Providing a verbindlicher Referenztext for metaethical questions about rational discourse on norms Correct answer.
  2. Replacing all other ethical theories in gA
  3. Teaching only formal logic without ethics
  4. A biography exam on Tugendhat’s life dates

Explanation

Tugendhat’s Drei Vorlesungen über Probleme der Ethik is the  Referenztext tied to the eA metaethics Additum on rational discourse about normative questions.

Question 34Moral theories andjustification

Which move best exemplifies seeking rationale Rechtfertigung of a moral judgment?

  1. ‘I feel like it, so it is right’ with no further reasons
  2. Offering publicly assessable reasons that could convince others in discourse, not mere preference Correct answer.
  3. Citing popularity alone (‘everyone does it’)
  4. Changing the subject to weather

Explanation

Rational justification aims at reasons that can be examined and potentially shared in discourse-matching the eA focus on Möglichkeiten eines rationalen Diskurses.

Question 35Moral theories andjustification

A text claims: ‘Because evolution favoured cooperation, cooperation is morally obligatory.’ Which curriculum problem is most relevant?

  1. A purely aesthetic judgment about beauty
  2. A truth-redundancy theory of ‘true’
  3. Sein–Sollen / naturalistic-fallacy worry about deriving obligation from evolutionary description Correct answer.
  4. Frege’s distinction between Sinn and Bedeutung only

Explanation

Evolutionary facts are descriptive; ‘obligatory’ is normative. The unjustified bridge is the Sein–Sollen / naturalistic-fallacy cluster named for Schwerpunkt I.

Question 36Moral theories andjustification

Which best distinguishes a moral Norm from a mere personal taste?

  1. Taste always overrides moral norms
  2. Moral norms are never discussed in philosophy
  3. Taste and norms are identical concepts
  4. Moral norms typically claim interpersonal authority or reasons for others; taste need not Correct answer.

Explanation

Moral norms purport to guide action with reasons that claim more than private preference; tastes need not bind others.

Question 37Moral theories andjustification

In applying ethical principles, what does ‘Anwendung’ emphasise for Abitur preparation?

  1. Using principles (e.g. duty vs consequence tests) to analyse concrete moral decision situations Correct answer.
  2. Memorising principle names without cases
  3. Avoiding all examples
  4. Only translating English ethics textbooks

Explanation

The Inhaltsfeld is ‘Ethische Prinzipien und ihre Anwendung’-candidates must apply principles to concrete moral questions, not only define labels.

Question 38Moral theories andjustification

Which judgment mixes descriptive reporting with an unargued normative verdict most clearly?

  1. ‘Unemployment rose 2% according to the statistics office’
  2. ‘Unemployment rose 2%; therefore the government is morally wicked’ without a bridging principle Correct answer.
  3. ‘If justice requires supporting the vulnerable, and policy P abandons them, then P is unjust’ (with the principle stated)
  4. ‘The report was published on Tuesday’

Explanation

The first jumps from a statistic to moral wickedness without a justifying principle-illustrative of is–ought risk. The third states its normative premise explicitly.

Question 39Moral theories andjustification

Moral particularism (as a contrast position) would most likely claim that:

  1. A small set of absolute principles always decides every case without attention to context
  2. No moral language exists
  3. Moral judgment may depend on the nuanced features of particular situations rather than a single master principle Correct answer.
  4. Only legal codes count as ethics

Explanation

Particularism stresses case-sensitive judgment rather than one master principle deciding all cases-useful as a contrast when applying principles.

Question 40Moral theories andjustification

In Sprachanalyse of moral discourse, asking whether ‘good’ functions like a natural property term is primarily a question in:

  1. Metaethics Correct answer.
  2. Organic chemistry
  3. Cartography
  4. Sports science

Explanation

Questions about the meaning and logical status of moral terms belong to metaethics-the eA Additum area.

Question 41Moral theories andjustification

Which position holds that moral judgments are truth-apt claims that can be true or false (cognitivism), as opposed to mere expressions of emotion?

  1. Emotivism as non-cognitivism
  2. Moral cognitivism Correct answer.
  3. Eliminativism about all language
  4. Behaviourism about rocks

Explanation

Cognitivism treats moral judgments as capable of truth/falsity. Emotivism is a classic non-cognitivist alternative-useful contrast for metaethical discourse.

Question 42Moral theories andjustification

A student writes: ‘Cultures disagree; therefore no moral judgment is ever better justified than another.’ Which response best shows philosophical literacy?

  1. Agree because disagreement always settles metaethics
  2. Change the topic to epistemology Frege only
  3. Claim cultures never disagree
  4. Challenge the inference: disagreement alone does not prove equal justificatory standing Correct answer.

Explanation

Disagreement is often cited for relativism, but the inference to equal justification is contestable-good AB-III style problematisieren.

Question 43Moral theories andjustification

Metaethics differs from normative ethics primarily by asking:

  1. Which vaccine schedule maximises QALYs only
  2. How to build furniture
  3. Which country has the longest coastline
  4. What the status, meaning, and justification of moral claims are, rather than which first-order duties we have Correct answer.

Explanation

Metaethics concerns meaning, truth, and justification of morality; normative ethics proposes first-order principles about what to do.

Question 44Moral theories andjustification

Which scenario best trains the Operator ‘auseinandersetzen mit’ for an ethics text?

  1. Copy the thesis without critique
  2. Develop an explicitly critical Stellungnahme on the author’s thesis using stated criteria Correct answer.
  3. Ignore the thesis
  4. Only count the author’s adjectives

Explanation

Auseinandersetzen mit/diskutieren (AB III) means developing an explicitly critical response on the basis of ausgewiesene Kriterien.

Question 45Moral theories andjustification

A fair comparison of deontology and consequentialism in an Erörterung should:

  1. Declare one side evil without reasons
  2. Discuss only epistemology
  3. Present each approach’s criteria, apply them to a case, weigh strengths/limits, then Urteil Correct answer.
  4. List vocabulary without argument

Explanation

Erörtern requires structured weighing of positions and a reasoned Urteil-exactly how principle-contrast tasks should look.

Question 46Knowledge,reality andargument

Rationalism, in this curriculum contrast, primarily emphasises that:

  1. Only laboratory instruments produce truths
  2. All beliefs are equally unjustified
  3. Reason (and often a priori insight) plays a fundamental role in knowledge, not experience alone Correct answer.
  4. Knowledge is identical to sensation

Explanation

Rationalism stresses reason and a priori structures/insights as central to knowledge, contrasting empiricism’s experience-first stance.

Question 47Knowledge,reality andargument

Metaphysical realism (in school-level contrast with idealism/constructivism) typically holds that:

  1. Nothing exists outside dreams
  2. Reality is identical to whatever a single subject invents without constraint
  3. Only numbers exist
  4. A mind-independent reality exists; truth involves getting that reality right Correct answer.

Explanation

Realism claims a reality independent of our particular representations; knowledge aims to track that reality (linked to correspondence intuitions).

Question 48Knowledge,reality andargument

Idealism, in the classical epistemology/metaphysics contrast, typically holds that:

  1. Reality is in some central sense mental/idea-dependent rather than a wholly mind-independent material given Correct answer.
  2. Only empirical lab results exist
  3. Moral relativism is true
  4. Dictionaries create physical objects

Explanation

Idealism (broadly) takes reality to be constituted by or dependent on mind/ideas, opposing naïve mind-independent materialism/realism.

Question 49Knowledge,reality andargument

A sceptical challenge to perception’s reliability typically claims that:

  1. Perception is infallible in every case
  2. Only moral perception exists
  3. Perception is identical to a priori proof
  4. Illusion, hallucination, or dream scenarios show perception can mislead, so justification needs care Correct answer.

Explanation

Classic scepticism uses error possibilities to question whether perceptual beliefs are knowledge-fit for Zuverlässigkeit discussions.

Question 50Knowledge,reality andargument

A constructivist might criticise naïve realism by arguing that:

  1. The world has no causal effects on experience at all, ever
  2. Ethics decides physics
  3. Observation is theory-laden; we do not access a scheme-free ‘given’ Correct answer.
  4. Dictionaries are false

Explanation

A standard constructivist/anti-naïve-realist point: conceptual schemes shape observation, so knowledge is not a pure mirror.