Lower Saxony Zentralabitur Math cheat sheet

Chain rule: never drop the inner derivative g'(x).

Integration by parts: choose u so du is simpler than u.

Change limits immediately when substituting in a definite integral.

Improper integrals require an explicit limit, not direct substitution.

Implicit differentiation collects dy/dx terms after differentiating both sides.

Consistency requires rank A = rank [A|b]; uniqueness also needs full column rank.

det A = 0 means no unique solution, not necessarily no solution.

Trace = sum of eigenvalues; determinant = product of eigenvalues.

a×b is perpendicular to both vectors; its magnitude is the parallelogram area.

Distance from point to plane: |n·P − d| / |n|.

Median resists outliers; mean does not.

P(A ∪ B) subtracts the intersection to avoid double counting.

Conditional probability divides the joint probability by the condition's probability.

Combinations count selections; permutations count arrangements.

z = (x − μ)/σ places a value on the standard normal scale.

Random assignment, not random sampling alone, supports causal conclusions.