IDAC Private Pilot Airplane (PPA) cheat sheet

ICAO Annex 2 classifies airspace A–G: Class A is IFR only with clearance; Class G is uncontrolled with no ATC clearance required; Classes C–E have varying VFR/IFR mixing and separation duties.

VFR meteorological minima (ICAO Annex 2, non-controlled airspace): at/above 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSL - 8 km flight visibility, 1500 m horizontal and 300 m (1000 ft) vertical distance from cloud.

Below 3050 m AMSL in non-controlled airspace: 5 km flight visibility, 1500 m horizontal and 300 m vertical cloud distance; in controlled airspace visibility rises to 8 km at/above 3050 m and 5 km below.

Semi-circular (hemispheric) cruising levels: track 000–179° magnetic uses odd thousands (FL 35, 55, 75…), track 180–359° uses even thousands (FL 45, 65, 85…) when flying IFR above the transition altitude.

VFR flight levels use the same hemispheric rule with 500 ft offsets: 000–179° → FL 35/55/75, 180–359° → FL 45/65/85, above the transition altitude.

Right-of-way: converging aircraft of the same category - the one on the right has right-of-way; head-on - both turn right; overtaking - the overtaken aircraft has right-of-way and the overtaker passes to the right.

Aircraft on final approach or landing has right-of-way over aircraft in flight or on the ground; an aircraft on the ground must give way to aircraft landing or in the final approach.

Anti-collision and position lights: navigation lights required between sunset and sunrise or in reduced visibility; anti-collision lights (strobes/beacons) used day and night unless they create a hazard.

Documents to be carried: certificate of registration, certificate of airworthiness, crew licences, journey log, and, where required, radio station licence and aircraft radio operator certificate.

Four-stroke cycle: intake, compression, power, exhaust - one power stroke per two crankshaft revolutions; a four-cylinder engine therefore produces two power strokes per revolution.

Mixture control: best power mixture ≈ 50–100 °F rich of peak EGT; best economy ≈ peak EGT; excessive lean-of-peak raises cylinder head temperature and risks detonation.

Carburettor icing is most likely at ambient temperatures between −10 °C and +15 °C with high relative humidity; carburettor heat raises mixture temperature and reduces power (roughly 100–150 rpm drop).

Detonation is uncontrolled explosive combustion after normal ignition, causing high CHT and possible engine damage; pre-ignition is ignition before the spark and usually destroys the piston.

Magnetic compass: turning errors (acceleration/deceleration) are largest on easterly/westerly headings; northerly turning error causes the compass to lag on turns from north and lead on turns from south.

Pitot-static: airspeed indicator uses pitot (dynamic) pressure and static pressure; altimeter uses static pressure only; VSI uses static pressure change rate; the static port blockage causes ASI to read like an altimeter.

Altimeter setting: subscale set to QNH gives altitude above mean sea level; QFE gives height above the aerodrome reference point; QNE (1013.25 hPa) gives flight level.

Load factor increases with bank angle: n = 1/cos(bank); at 60° bank the load factor is 2 g, at 75° it is about 3.9 g, and the stall speed rises by √n.

Electrical system: alternator/generator failure is indicated by zero or discharge on the ammeter; the battery then supplies limited power, so non-essential electrical loads should be shed.

Mass and balance: centre of gravity must remain within the forward and aft limits; forward CG increases stability and stick force but lengthens take-off run and reduces climb performance; aft CG reduces stability and can cause control difficulty.

Moment = mass × arm; total moment ÷ total mass = CG position; adding or removing mass shifts the CG toward or away from the added/removed station.

Density altitude = pressure altitude + 120 ft per °C above ISA temperature; high density altitude increases take-off distance, reduces climb rate and reduces engine power.

Take-off and landing distances vary approximately with the square of the speed and inversely with acceleration; headwind reduces ground roll, tailwind increases it markedly - a 10 % tailwind can increase take-off distance by more than 20 %.

Climb performance: rate of climb = excess power / weight; best rate of climb speed (VY) gives maximum altitude gain per unit time, best angle (VX) gives maximum altitude gain per unit distance.

Fuel planning: trip fuel + taxi + contingency + alternate + final reserve + extra; final reserve for VFR is typically 30 minutes (45 min for IFR) at holding speed.

Weight and balance: maximum take-off mass, maximum landing mass and maximum zero-fuel mass are separate limits; landing mass may be exceeded only if the aircraft is planned to burn off fuel before landing.

Performance charts are based on pressure altitude, temperature, mass and wind; interpolate between tabulated values and apply wind and runway slope corrections after the base calculation.

Flight plan: ICAO flight plan requires aircraft identification, type, wake turbulence category, departure/destination, route, cruising level, speed, endurance and alternate aerodrome.

Hypoxia: symptoms begin around 10 000 ft in unacclimatised persons; time of useful consciousness at FL 250 is roughly 3–5 minutes, at FL 350 about 30–60 seconds.

Hyperventilation causes dizziness, tingling and visual disturbance; treatment is to slow the breathing rate or rebreathe into a bag; it can be mistaken for hypoxia.

Spatial disorientation: the somatogravic illusion makes acceleration feel like a climb and deceleration feel like a descent; the leans illusion follows a sudden roll back to level.

Carbon monoxide poisoning causes headache, drowsiness and cherry-red skin; it is odourless and binds haemoglobin about 200–250 times more strongly than oxygen.

Fatigue: circadian low points occur around 03:00–05:00 and 15:00–17:00 local time; cumulative sleep debt degrades judgement and reaction time before the pilot notices.

Vision: foveal (central) vision provides detail and colour but poor night sensitivity; rod (peripheral) vision is better at night - use off-centre viewing to see dim objects.

Decompression sickness (the bends) results from dissolved nitrogen coming out of solution after rapid decompression; risk increases with altitude, repetition and physical activity.

Stress and workload: performance follows an inverted-U curve - low arousal reduces alertness, high arousal degrades decision-making; use prioritisation (aviate, navigate, communicate) to manage overload.

Alcohol: even small amounts degrade judgement and coordination; allow at least 8 hours between last drink and flight and fly only when the blood alcohol level is below the legal limit.

Standard atmosphere: sea level 15 °C, 1013.25 hPa, temperature lapse rate 1.98 °C per 1000 ft (about 2 °C/1000 ft) up to 11 km (36 090 ft), then isothermal.

Pressure systems: in the northern hemisphere air circulates anticlockwise around a low and clockwise around a high; converging surface winds cause upward motion and cloud in a low.

ISA deviation: pressure altitude = indicated altitude + 30 ft per hPa below 1013; true altitude = pressure altitude + 120 ft per °C of ISA deviation.

Cloud types: cumulonimbus produces severe turbulence, icing and hail; stratocumulus and stratus produce low ceilings; altostratus and cirrostratus indicate an approaching warm front.

Icing: clear (glaze) ice forms in large supercooled droplets at 0 to −10 °C and is the most dangerous; rime ice forms in small droplets at −10 to −20 °C; both increase weight and reduce lift.

Wind: surface friction reduces wind speed and backs the wind (turns it anticlockwise) over land; wind veers with altitude in the northern hemisphere (Ekman spiral).

Thunderstorms: three stages - cumulus (updrafts), mature (updrafts and downdrafts, rain, lightning, hail), dissipating (downdrafts); avoid by at least 10–20 NM and do not fly under the anvil.

Fog: radiation fog forms on clear, calm nights with high humidity and dissipates after sunrise; advection fog forms when warm moist air moves over a cold surface.

Mountain waves: form on the lee side of ridges with strong winds aloft; expect severe turbulence, downdrafts and lenticular clouds; approach with extra altitude and speed.

Great circle: the shortest distance between two points on the Earth's surface; a rhumb line is a constant-track line that crosses meridians at the same angle and is longer than the great circle (except on the equator or a meridian).

1 minute of latitude = 1 nautical mile; 1 degree of latitude = 60 NM; 1 degree of longitude = 60 NM × cos(latitude).

Magnetic variation: east variation is subtracted from true heading (true → magnetic), west variation is added; deviation is the compass error caused by aircraft magnetism.

Time: 15° of longitude = 1 hour; UTC is the reference; local mean time = UTC ± longitude/15 hours; the date line is at 180° longitude.

VOR: radials are magnetic bearings from the station; the CDI centres when the OBS is set to the radial to/from the station; reverse sensing occurs if the OBS is set to the reciprocal.

NDB/ADF: the needle points to the station relative to the aircraft heading; relative bearing + heading = magnetic bearing to the station; ADF is affected by thunderstorms and shoreline effects.

ILS: localiser gives lateral guidance (108.10–111.95 MHz, odd tenths), glideslope gives vertical guidance (329.15–335 MHz); a 3° glideslope descends about 300 ft per NM.

GPS: RAIM (receiver autonomous integrity monitoring) detects satellite faults; the required accuracy for approach is typically 0.3 NM (RNP 0.3) and RAIM prediction must be checked before an approach.

Wind triangle: heading and TAS combined with wind velocity give track and groundspeed; drift angle = track − heading; crosswind component = wind speed × sin(wind angle).

Emergency: the priority order is aviate, navigate, communicate; declare an emergency with MAYDAY (distress) or PAN PAN (urgency) on 121.5 MHz or the current ATC frequency.

Engine failure after take-off: maintain control, establish best glide speed (VY or VBG), select a landing area ahead, attempt restart only if altitude permits, and land with wings level.

Fire: for an engine fire, close the fuel and mixture, select the fire extinguisher, and land as soon as possible; for an electrical fire, switch off the master and use the extinguisher.

Emergency descent: use maximum descent rate with spoilers/flaps as appropriate, maintain cabin altitude awareness, and turn away from the airway centreline if needed.

Runway incursion: read back hold-short instructions, use standard phraseology, and never cross a hold-short line without explicit clearance.

Wake turbulence: generated by wingtip vortices, strongest when heavy, clean and slow; avoid by at least 3 minutes behind a heavy aircraft and stay above its flight path.

Pre-flight: check fuel quantity and quality (drain sumps for water and sediment), check NOTAMs and weather, and confirm mass and balance within limits.

Emergency equipment: fire extinguisher, first aid kit, survival kit where required; brief passengers on exits and brace positions before take-off.

Radio failure: squawk 7600, continue VFR and land at the nearest suitable aerodrome; for IFR follow the published lost-communication procedure.

Lift = ½ ρ V² S CL; lift increases with the square of speed, so doubling speed quadruples lift at a given angle of attack.

Angle of attack is the angle between the chord line and the relative airflow; the critical angle of attack (about 15–18° for most aerofoils) produces the stall regardless of speed, mass or attitude.

Induced drag decreases with speed (proportional to 1/V²) while parasite drag increases with V²; total drag is minimum at the speed where induced and parasite drag are equal.

Load factor n = L/W = 1/cos(bank); stall speed increases with √n, so a 60° bank raises the stall speed by about 41 %.

Stability: positive static stability means the aircraft tends to return to equilibrium; longitudinal stability is improved by a CG forward of the neutral point and by a horizontal tail with negative lift.

Control: ailerons control roll about the longitudinal axis, elevator controls pitch about the lateral axis, rudder controls yaw about the normal (vertical) axis.

Adverse yaw: the downgoing aileron produces more induced drag, yawing the nose away from the turn; coordinated rudder prevents it.

Wingtip vortices: high-pressure air below the wing flows outward and upward around the tip; they are strongest when heavy, clean and slow and sink at about 300 ft/min.

Ground effect: within one wingspan of the ground, induced drag and downwash reduce, so the aircraft floats and requires a longer landing distance; it can also cause premature lift-off.

Phraseology: use standard ICAO terms - ROGER (acknowledged), WILCO (will comply), AFFIRM, NEGATIVE, STANDBY, SAY AGAIN, CORRECTION; read back clearances and hold-short instructions.

Distress call: MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY followed by station called, callsign, nature of distress and position; urgency call is PAN PAN, PAN PAN, PAN PAN.

Squawk codes: 7500 unlawful interference, 7600 radio failure, 7700 general emergency; codes are set only when instructed or in an emergency.

Position report: identification, position, time, altitude/flight level, next position and ETA; VFR position reports are made at compulsory reporting points.

Clearance read-back: aircraft callsign, clearance limit, route, altitude, and any hold-short or frequency instruction must be read back.

Frequency: 121.5 MHz is the emergency frequency; 123.45 MHz is reserved for air-to-air communications in some regions; use the ATIS frequency before contacting approach.

Communication failure in VFR: squawk 7600, remain VFR, and land at the nearest suitable aerodrome; in IFR follow the published lost-communication procedure and the last acknowledged clearance.

Radio discipline: think before transmitting, use the aircraft callsign at the start and end of a transmission, and keep transmissions brief and standard.