Individual processes & characteristics
Individual processes & characteristics
This domain covers stable differences, attitudes, perception, and motivation - the within-person explanations for behavior. Expect applied questions that ask which theory predicts an employee's effort or interpretation.
Differences and attitudes
- Big Five: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism. Conscientiousness predicts job performance across occupations; neuroticism relates to stress.
- Other traits: core self-evaluations (self-esteem, self-efficacy, locus of control, neuroticism), Machiavellianism, Type A behavior. MBTI is popular but has weak predictive validity for performance.
- Attitudes: job satisfaction, job involvement, engagement, and organizational commitment (affective, continuance, normative). The attitude–behavior link is stronger when attitudes are specific and accessible.
Perception and attribution
Attribution theory judges causes by consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency. The fundamental attribution error overweights disposition for others; self-serving bias credits success to self and blame to situation. Halo, stereotyping, selective perception, and contrast effects distort ratings.
Motivation
Content theories: Maslow's hierarchy (weaker empirical support), Herzberg's two-factor theory (motivators such as achievement and responsibility; hygiene such as pay and policy prevent dissatisfaction but do not motivate), McClelland's needs for achievement, power, and affiliation. Process theories: Vroom expectancy theory (motivation = expectancy × instrumentality × valence), Adams equity theory (compare input–output ratios; restore equity by changing inputs, outcomes, referent, or leaving), Locke goal-setting (specific, difficult, accepted goals with feedback), and reinforcement theory (behavior followed by consequences). Job characteristics model: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback create meaningfulness, responsibility, and knowledge of results.
Worked example
A capable analyst stops trying. Expectancy is low because goals are vague and appraisal seems arbitrary; instrumentality is low because past high ratings brought no reward. Raising valence alone will not help. Clarify measurable goals, train the manager to rate behavior, and tie a valued reward to performance - this addresses expectancy and instrumentality.
Traps
Hygiene factors are not motivators. Maslow's strict hierarchy is not well supported. Equity is not only about underpayment; overpayment can also motivate restoration. Do not assume satisfied workers are productive - satisfaction and performance are related but not identical.