Estonian Basic-School Russian Language and Literature Exam key terms

The main subject a text is about, stated in a short phrase. A reader finds it by asking what the whole passage discusses, not by copying a single sentence.

The central idea or message an author wants the reader to take away, often broader than the topic. It usually requires combining several sentences rather than locating one explicit statement.

A small subtopic developed within one paragraph or a few sentences of a longer text. Splitting a text into microtopics helps a reader build an outline and summarise it accurately.

A short ordered list of headings that mirrors the structure of a text. Each point names one part of the content, so the plan can be used to retell or summarise the passage.

Reproducing the content of a text in one's own words while keeping the order of events and key details. A good retelling is shorter than the original and keeps the author's meaning intact.

A condensed written retelling that keeps the main information and removes secondary details, repetitions and examples. It requires compressing several sentences into one general statement without losing meaning.

Understanding spoken Russian heard once or twice, for example an announcement, dialogue or short interview. The listener identifies the situation, the speakers' aims and specific facts such as times, places and numbers.

A single utterance by one speaker in a conversation, marked in writing by a dash or quotation marks. Its content and tone show the speaker's reaction to the previous remark.

The rise and fall of the voice in speech, which can turn a statement into a question or signal surprise, doubt or insistence. In listening tasks it often carries meaning that the words alone do not.

Extra vocal stress placed on the word that carries the most important information in a sentence. Moving it changes the focus of the utterance, for example which detail is being corrected or contrasted.

A fixed expression whose meaning cannot be worked out from its separate words, such as бить баклуши ('to idle'). It functions as one unit in a sentence and usually has a neutral synonym.

A word close in meaning to another word but not identical in use or tone, for example смелый and храбрый. Choosing between synonyms depends on style, collocation and the shade of meaning needed.

A word expressing the opposite meaning of another word, such as высокий and низкий. Antonyms must belong to the same part of speech and describe the same quality or relation.

One of two or more words that sound and are spelled alike but have unrelated meanings, for example ключ ('spring' and 'key'). Context is the only reliable way to decide which meaning is intended.

A word with several related meanings that developed from one another, such as крыло of a bird and of a building. The correct meaning is identified from the surrounding words.

The basic, literal meaning of a word that names an object or action directly, as in золотое кольцо ('gold ring'). It is contrasted with figurative uses that transfer the name to something similar.

A secondary meaning created by transferring a name to another object on the basis of similarity or association, as in золотые руки ('skilled hands'). Figurative meanings give speech imagery and emotional colour.

A trope in which a word is used figuratively because of similarity between two things, without the words как or будто. For example, лес рук ('a forest of hands') presents raised hands as trees.

A descriptive word or phrase that highlights a striking quality of an object and adds evaluation, often in poetry. Unlike a plain adjective, it carries an emotional or pictorial charge, as in парус одинокий.

A figure of speech that places two things side by side to show resemblance, usually with как, будто, словно or a comparative form. It keeps both objects visible, unlike a metaphor.

Giving a non-human thing human qualities or actions, as when the wind whispers or a cliff stands and thinks. It is common in landscape poetry and in fables.

Deliberate exaggeration used for emphasis or comic effect, as in сто раз тебе говорил. It should not be read literally; its purpose is to intensify a quality or feeling.

The matching of sounds at the ends of poetic lines, usually from the stressed vowel onwards. Its pattern, or scheme, shapes the stanza and helps mark the end of a line.

The regular alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables that gives a poem its movement. In Russian verse it is built on syllable stress and checked against metre.

The metrical scheme of a poem, such as ямб (unstressed-stressed) or хорей (stressed-unstressed), counted in feet per line. Naming the size requires marking stresses in the first lines.

A group of lines in a poem separated from others by a pause, often with its own rhyme scheme. A quatrain has four lines; longer stanzas are named by their line count.

A short prose narrative with few characters and one central episode, which is resolved quickly. Its brevity concentrates attention on a single conflict or turning point.

A prose narrative longer than a story but smaller than a novel, covering several episodes and often a longer stretch of a character's life. It allows more than one storyline without the breadth of a novel.

The chain of events in a work of fiction, arranged as cause and effect rather than simple chronology. It usually moves through exposition, complication, climax and resolution.

The arrangement of parts in a literary work, including the order of episodes, framing and any shifts in time or narrator. It affects how the reader receives the content.

The author's attitude to the characters and events, expressed through narration, detail and speech rather than direct statement. Readers infer it from what is emphasised, mocked or left unsaid.

The voice or persona speaking in a lyric poem, whose feelings and views may differ from the poet's own biography. It is the organising consciousness through which the poem's experience is presented.

A short allegorical tale in verse or prose, usually with animal characters, ending in an explicit moral. Its purpose is to expose a human failing through a simple example.

The stated lesson drawn at the end of a fable, often spoken by the narrator. It generalises the story's example into advice about behaviour.

A place in a word where the spelling follows a rule or must be checked rather than heard, such as an unstressed vowel in the root. Recognising it is the first step to choosing the correct letter.

A related word in which the doubtful sound is in a strong position, so the correct letter becomes clear, as вода checked by воды. It works for unstressed root vowels and for final consonants.

The part of a word that carries its core meaning and is shared by a family of related words, as in лес, лесной, лесник. Identifying it helps with spelling and word building.

A meaningful part placed before a root that changes or refines the word's meaning, as in при-нести, у-нести. Its spelling sometimes depends on the following sound.

A meaningful part placed after a root or another suffix that forms a new word or a grammatical form, as -тель in учитель. Suffixes often carry shade of meaning such as smallness or profession.

The variable final part of a word that links it grammatically to other words and shows case, number or person. It is found by comparing forms of the same word.

A grammatical category of Russian nouns, pronouns and adjectives showing their role in the sentence. There are six cases, each answering specific questions and governed by verbs or prepositions.

The pattern of case endings a noun follows, with three main types in Russian. Knowing the declension type helps predict endings and avoid mistakes in writing.

A short formal written request addressed to an official or institution, with a standard layout: addressee, applicant, title, body and date. The body states the request briefly and politely.

A brief public notice giving information such as an event, a lost item or a job. It is written in a compact, neutral style and puts the essential facts first.

The functional style used in documents, letters to institutions and rules. It favours precise wording, standard formulas and full forms, and avoids emotional vocabulary and colloquial expressions.

A structured essay that states a thesis, supports it with arguments and evidence, and ends with a conclusion. Each paragraph develops one point and links logically to the next.

The main claim a writer sets out to prove in an argumentative text. It should be clear, debatable and stated early, so that the following paragraphs can support it.

A reason or piece of evidence offered to support a thesis. Strong arguments are specific, relevant and often drawn from the text or from experience.

The concluding statement that follows from the arguments and answers the question posed at the start. It should restate the main point without simply repeating the introduction.