Aragón PAU History of Spain key terms

Archaeological site in Burgos whose caves yielded Homo antecessor and early Neanderthal fossils, key evidence for the earliest human presence in the Iberian Peninsula.

Extinct human species identified at Atapuerca's Gran Dolina level, dated around 800,000 years ago and considered one of the oldest hominins known in Europe.

Earliest phase of the Stone Age, represented in Iberia by core-and-flake toolkits and Acheulean handaxes from sites such as Atapuerca and Torralba.

Upper Palaeolithic polychrome paintings of bison and other animals on the Cantabrian cave ceiling, the classic example of Franco-Cantabrian rock art in Spain.

Epipalaeolithic and Neolithic rock paintings of the eastern Spanish coast, showing small schematic human figures in hunting and gathering scenes rather than isolated animals.

Chalcolithic settlement in Almería with defensive walls, megalithic tombs and copper working, a reference site for the emergence of social hierarchy in southeastern Iberia.

Early Bronze Age culture of southeastern Iberia, known for hilltop settlements, individual burials within dwellings and a stratified society with specialised metallurgy.

Legendary and archaeologically attested polity of the lower Guadalquivir in the first millennium BCE, linked to Atlantic trade and contacts with Phoenician colonists.

Establishment of trading settlements such as Gadir (Cádiz) from the ninth century BCE, which connected southern Iberia to Mediterranean commerce and introduced new crafts.

Iron Age peoples of the central Iberian plateau and Ebro valley, combining Celtic language and material culture with Iberian influences and organised in fortified hillforts.

Celtiberian hillfort near Soria whose long resistance to Rome ended with its destruction in 133 BCE, a symbol of Iberian opposition to conquest.

Gradual adoption of Roman law, language, urbanism and religion in Hispania after conquest, visible in roads, aqueducts, Latin epigraphy and municipal institutions.

Roman colony founded in 25 BCE at modern Mérida, capital of Lusitania, preserving a theatre, amphitheatre and bridge that illustrate Roman urban planning in Hispania.

Successor kingdom ruling most of Iberia from the sixth to early eighth century, whose councils of Toledo fused royal power with the Catholic Church.

Visigothic king who converted from Arianism to Catholicism at the Third Council of Toledo in 589, aligning the monarchy with the Hispano-Roman Catholic majority.

Muslim territory in the Iberian Peninsula between 711 and 1492, at times an emirate, caliphate or collection of taifas, with Córdoba as its great cultural centre.

State proclaimed by Abd al-Rahman III in 929 that centralised al-Andalus, expanded its army and made Córdoba a leading centre of learning and trade.

Small successor states that emerged after the collapse of the Caliphate of Córdoba around 1031, competing politically and paying tribute to Christian rulers.

Long process by which Christian kingdoms expanded southward at the expense of al-Andalus, culminating in the conquest of Granada in 1492.

Composite monarchy formed by the union of Aragon and Catalonia in 1137, later including Valencia, Mallorca and Mediterranean possessions, each keeping its own laws and institutions.

Standing committee of the Catalan Corts created in the fourteenth century that became a permanent institution of self-government within the Crown of Aragon.

Political practice in the Crown of Aragon whereby the monarch governed in agreement with the estates and respected regional charters and privileges.

Agreement of 1412 by which representatives of Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia chose Ferdinand of Antequera as king, settling a succession dispute through negotiation.

Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, whose dynastic union in 1469 underpinned a shared foreign policy, the conquest of Granada and religious uniformity.

Church tribunal established in Castile in 1478 to police religious orthodoxy among converted Jews and Muslims, later also controlling censorship and moral conduct.

Decree of 1609 ordering the removal of baptised Muslims from the Hispanic kingdoms, justified by fears of disloyalty and causing demographic and economic loss in Valencia and Aragon.

Period from 1516 to 1700 when Spanish kingdoms were ruled by the Austrian Habsburg dynasty, marked by imperial commitments in Europe and America and recurring fiscal strain.

Favourite of Philip IV who promoted the Union of Arms, seeking a more uniform contribution of men and money from all the kingdoms of the monarchy.

Catalan uprising from 1640 against billeting and fiscal demands of the Spanish monarchy, which briefly placed Catalonia under French sovereignty.

Treaty of 1659 ending war between Spain and France, ceding Catalan territory north of the Pyrenees and sealing a marriage alliance between the two crowns.

Treaties of 1648 that ended the Thirty Years' War and recognised Dutch independence, confirming the decline of Spanish imperial dominance in Europe.

Administrative, fiscal and military changes introduced in eighteenth-century Spain, including intendants, new taxes and closer royal control over American trade.

Decrees issued from 1707 by Philip V abolishing the distinct laws and institutions of Aragon, Valencia, Catalonia and Mallorca after the War of Succession.

Assembly convened in 1810 during the Peninsular War that drafted the Constitution of 1812, establishing national sovereignty and a single chamber.

Liberal Spanish constitution proclaimed in Cádiz, asserting national sovereignty, equality before the law, freedom of the press and a constitutional monarchy.

Traditionalist movement supporting Don Carlos and his descendants against the liberal monarchy, defending religion, regional charters and a strong monarchy.

Civil conflict from 1833 to 1840 between supporters of Isabella II and the Carlist pretender, fought mainly in the Basque provinces and Catalonia.

Sale of church and municipal lands to raise state revenue and create a class of small and medium landowners, notably under Mendizábal and Madoz.

Political system of Isabella II's reign built on a restricted census suffrage and alternating moderate and progressive parties, with the crown and army playing decisive roles.

System from 1874 to 1923 designed by Cánovas del Castillo, based on the Constitution of 1876, a two-party rotation and electoral manipulation through local bosses.

Practice in which local notables controlled elections and public services through patronage and pressure, ensuring the planned alternation of parties in rural Spain.

Democratic regime established on 14 April 1931 after the fall of the monarchy, marked by reformist policies, political polarisation and internal conflict.

Two-year period from 1933 to 1935 of conservative government that reversed agrarian and labour reforms, deepening confrontation between left and right in the Republic.

Conflict from 1936 to 1939 between the Republican government and a military rebellion, shaped by foreign intervention and ending in Francoist victory.

Volunteer units organised by the Communist International to fight for the Republic, arriving from 1936 and symbolising the war's international dimension.

Authoritarian dictatorship led by General Franco from 1939 to 1975, combining repression, single-party rule, Catholic nationalism and later economic modernisation.

Economic package of 1959 that liberalised trade and investment, curbing inflation and preparing the rapid growth of the following decade.

Process after Franco's death in 1975 that dismantled the dictatorship through legal reform, political amnesty, elections in 1977 and a negotiated constitution.

Current Spanish constitution, approved by referendum, establishing a parliamentary monarchy, territorial autonomy and extensive fundamental rights.

Agreements of 1977 between government, parties and unions on economic austerity and institutional reform, stabilising the young democracy amid economic crisis.

Territorial model created under the 1978 Constitution, dividing Spain into autonomous communities with their own statutes, parliaments and competences.

Organic law that defines the institutions, competences and financing of an autonomous community within the Spanish constitutional framework.

Document or object produced in the period under study, such as a law, letter, photograph or archaeological find, used as direct evidence by the historian.

Later work that interprets and synthesises evidence, such as a history book or academic article, rather than originating in the period being studied.

Method of assessing a source's authorship, date, purpose, audience and reliability before using its content as evidence in an argument.

Exam exercise that classifies a historical document, explains its ideas and context, and assesses its significance for the period studied.

Explanation of change by distinguishing long-term structures, medium-term conditions and immediate triggers, and by weighing their relative importance.

Ordering of events and periods in time, used to establish sequence, duration and contemporaneity when analysing processes such as the Reconquista or the Transition.