Balearic PAU Geology & Env Sci cheat sheet

Earth's layered structure: continental crust ~30-70 km (granitic), oceanic crust ~5-10 km (basaltic), mantle to 2900 km, liquid outer core, solid inner core; discontinuities at Moho and Gutenberg.

Plate boundaries: divergent (ridges, normal faults, basaltic magmatism), convergent (subduction, andesitic-granitic arcs, thrusts), transform (strike-slip, shallow seismicity).

Magma series: tholeiitic (low K, ridges), calc-alkaline (arcs, subduction), alkaline (intraplate); Bowen's reaction series controls crystallization order.

Metamorphic facies by P-T: zeolite, greenschist, amphibolite, granulite (low to high T); blueschist and eclogite mark high-P/low-T subduction settings.

Deformation: brittle (faults, joints) vs ductile (folds); stress types compressive, tensional, shear; fold geometry (anticline, syncline, limb, axial plane) records strain.

Relative dating principles: superposition, original horizontality, cross-cutting relationships, inclusions, faunal succession; unconformities angular, disconformity, nonconformity.

Absolute dating: radiometric decay N=N0·e^(-λt), half-life t½=ln2/λ; useful isotopes K-Ar, Rb-Sr, U-Pb, C-14 (short range).

External geodynamics: weathering, erosion, transport, sedimentation driven by gravity, water, wind, ice; sedimentary basins record paleoenvironmental change.

Geological time scale: Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic (Precambrian ~88% of time), then Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic; boundaries marked by major extinction events.

Major extinctions: end-Ordovician, Late Devonian, end-Permian (~252 Ma, largest), end-Triassic, end-Cretaceous (~66 Ma, impact).

Key events: Great Oxidation Event ~2.4 Ga, Cambrian explosion ~540 Ma, Pangaea assembly and breakup, Quaternary glaciations.

Eras of Cenozoic: Paleogene, Neogene, Quaternary; Pleistocene and Holocene; proposed Anthropocene as informal unit.

Paleoclimate proxies: ice cores (CO2, isotopes), oxygen isotope ratios in foraminifera, tree rings, speleothems, pollen, sediment cores.

Isotope stratigraphy: δ18O lighter during warm/wet, heavier during cold/glacial; δ13C excursions mark carbon-cycle perturbations.

Magnetostratigraphy and seafloor magnetic stripes provide evidence of seafloor spreading and reversals of Earth's field.

Stratigraphic correlation tools: lithostratigraphy, biostratigraphy (index fossils), chronostratigraphy, sequence stratigraphy.

Mineral definition: naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solid with definite chemical composition and ordered atomic structure; identified by hardness (Mohs 1-10), cleavage, luster, streak, color.

Silicate structures: isolated tetrahedra (olivine), chains (pyroxene, amphibole), sheets (micas, clays), frameworks (quartz, feldspars).

Igneous classification: intrusive (coarse, phaneritic) vs extrusive (fine, aphanitic); felsic (high SiO2, low density) to mafic (low SiO2, high density).

Sedimentary rocks: clastic (conglomerate, sandstone, shale), chemical (limestone, evaporites), organic (coal); grain size and sorting indicate transport energy.

Metamorphic rocks: foliated (slate, schist, gneiss) vs non-foliated (marble, quartzite); protolith and grade determine texture.

Rock cycle links magmatism, weathering, sedimentation, metamorphism and melting; plate tectonics drives the cycle.

Economic minerals: metal ores (Cu, Fe, Pb-Zn), industrial minerals (gypsum, halite, clays), energy resources (coal, hydrocarbons, geothermal).

Balearic relevance: limestones, dolomites, marls and evaporites (gypsum) are common and economically quarried.

Atmospheric layers: troposphere (weather, lapse rate ~6.5°C/km), stratosphere (ozone), mesosphere, thermosphere; pressure decreases exponentially with altitude.

Radiative balance: incoming solar shortwave vs outgoing longwave; greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, N2O, H2O, CFCs) absorb infrared, warming surface.

Albedo and feedbacks: ice-albedo positive feedback, water-vapor feedback, cloud feedbacks uncertain; Milankovitch cycles drive glacial-interglacial cycles.

Natural forcings: solar variability, volcanic aerosols (cooling), ENSO, NAO; anthropogenic forcings: fossil fuels, land use, aerosols.

Climate vs weather: climate is long-term statistics (30-year normals); weather is short-term atmospheric state.

Atmospheric circulation: Hadley, Ferrel, Polar cells; Coriolis deflection; jet streams; Mediterranean climate with hot dry summers and mild wet winters.

Climate change impacts: sea-level rise, heat waves, drought, altered precipitation, ocean acidification; Mediterranean is a warming hotspot.

Mitigation vs adaptation; carbon budgets; IPCC scenarios (SSP/RCP) link emissions to temperature projections.

Water cycle fluxes: evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, groundwater recharge; residence times vary from days (atmosphere) to millennia (aquifers).

Watershed (cuenca) is the unit of hydrological analysis; divide separates basins; hydrograph relates rainfall to discharge.

Groundwater: water table, aquifer (porous, karst, fractured), aquitard, recharge and discharge zones; Darcy's law Q=K·A·(Δh/L).

Karst aquifers: rapid flow through conduits, high vulnerability to pollution, springs and intermittent streams.

Water quality indicators: BOD, COD, nitrates, phosphates, turbidity, salinity; eutrophication from nutrient excess.

Hydrological hazards: floods (flash floods in Mediterranean), droughts, overexploitation of aquifers, seawater intrusion in coastal zones.

Balearic context: limited surface water, dependence on karst and coastal aquifers, desalination, water scarcity in summer tourism season.

Management: integrated water resource management, water footprint, reuse of treated water, protection zones around wellheads.

Soil formation factors (Jenny): climate, organisms, relief, parent material, time (CLORPT); horizons O-A-B-C-R form soil profile.

Soil properties: texture (sand, silt, clay), structure, pH, organic matter, cation exchange capacity, porosity and permeability.

Soil degradation: erosion (water and wind), salinization, compaction, loss of organic matter, contamination; Mediterranean soils vulnerable to erosion.

Ecosystems and biodiversity: trophic levels, food webs, primary productivity, ecological succession (primary vs secondary), climax communities.

Mediterranean ecosystems: maquis, garrigue, pine forests, Posidonia oceanica seagrass meadows (key Balearic marine habitat).

Biodiversity conservation: endemic species, protected areas, Natura 2000 network, Red Lists, ecosystem services.

Biogeochemical cycles: carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, water; human alteration of nitrogen and carbon cycles.

Soil and ecosystem interactions: vegetation protects soil from erosion; soil fertility supports agriculture and biodiversity.

Volcanic hazards: lava flows, pyroclastic flows, ash fall, lahars, gas emissions; monitoring via seismicity, deformation, gas.

Seismic hazards: magnitude (Richter/moment) vs intensity (Mercalli/EMS); epicenter, focus, fault rupture; site effects amplify shaking in soft soils.

Slope hazards: landslides, rockfalls, debris flows; factors are slope angle, lithology, water content, vegetation, human activity; safety factor concept.

Coastal hazards: erosion, cliff retreat, storm surges, sea-level rise; Balearic beaches are dynamic and vulnerable to storms.

Fluvial hazards: flash floods in Mediterranean torrents (torrents de sa Riera, sa Fosca type), floodplains, dams and channelization.

Hazard vs risk vs vulnerability: Risk = Hazard × Exposure × Vulnerability; hazard maps and land-use planning reduce exposure.

Tsunami and seismic sea waves in Mediterranean, though rare; volcanic and seismic activity linked to plate boundaries (not in Balearics).

Early warning systems, civil protection plans, and education reduce disaster risk.

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): process identifies, predicts and mitigates impacts of projects; includes screening, scoping, baseline, impact prediction, mitigation, monitoring.

Pollution types: air (SO2, NOx, PM, O3), water (nutrients, heavy metals, hydrocarbons), soil (pesticides, metals), noise, light.

Waste management hierarchy: prevention, reuse, recycling, recovery, disposal; landfill and incineration issues; hazardous waste.

Protected areas: national parks, natural reserves, Natura 2000 (SAC, SPA), marine protected areas; Balearic examples include Cabrera, Sa Dragonera, Serra de Tramuntana (UNESCO).

Sustainability principles: precautionary principle, polluter pays, integrated coastal zone management, carrying capacity.

Circular economy, renewable energy, energy efficiency; tourism pressure on Balearic resources (water, land, waste).

Environmental legislation: EU directives (Water Framework, Habitats, Birds, EIA), Spanish and Balearic laws; public participation.

Indicators and monitoring: ecological footprint, air/water quality indices, biodiversity indicators, environmental audits.

Balearics are part of the Betic-Rifian Alpine system (western Mediterranean), formed by collision and later extensional collapse; islands are emergent parts of submarine promontories.

Geologic structure: thrust sheets and folds in the Serra de Tramuntana (Mallorca), with Mesozoic and Cenozoic carbonates; Menorca has two distinct geological halves (Tramuntana and Migjorn).

Lithologies: Jurassic-Cretaceous limestones and dolomites, Miocene marls and reef limestones, Quaternary coastal deposits, evaporites (gypsum) in some areas.

Karst systems: caves (Coves del Drach, dels Hams, Artà), poljes, sinkholes, karst springs; important groundwater reservoirs.

Coastal systems: sandy beaches (calas), dunes, cliffs, Posidonia meadows; erosion and tourism pressure; coastal law (Ley de Costas) regulates development.

Island-specific hazards: flash floods (Mallorca torrents), coastal erosion and storms, seismic activity low but present, landslides on steep slopes, wildfires.

Climate: Mediterranean, hot dry summers, mild wet winters; water scarcity, drought risk, salinization of coastal aquifers.

Protected areas: Serra de Tramuntana (UNESCO World Heritage cultural landscape), Cabrera Archipelago National Park, Sa Dragonera, S'Albufera wetlands.

Hazard assessment uses frequency-magnitude analysis; return period T = 1/λ where λ is annual exceedance rate.

Seismic hazard maps combine historical seismicity, fault data, attenuation laws; intensity scales describe damage.

Volcanic monitoring: seismographs, tiltmeters, GPS, gas spectrometers, thermal imagery; eruption forecasting is probabilistic.

Landslide susceptibility mapping uses slope, lithology, land use, rainfall thresholds; early warning based on rainfall intensity-duration.

Coastal vulnerability indices incorporate sea-level rise, wave energy, geomorphology, human development.

Flood risk management: structural (dams, dikes, channelization) and non-structural (land-use planning, insurance, warning).

Vulnerability includes physical, social, economic and institutional dimensions; resilience reduces disaster impact.

Balearic hazard context: flash floods, coastal storms, wildfires, low seismicity, karst collapse and sinkholes.

Greenhouse effect: atmospheric gases absorb outgoing longwave radiation; without it Earth's mean surface would be ~-18°C, actual ~15°C.

Radiative forcing (W/m²) quantifies energy imbalance; positive forcing warms, negative cools; CO2 forcing ~5.35·ln(C/C0) W/m².

Carbon cycle: reservoirs (atmosphere, ocean, biosphere, lithosphere), fluxes; fossil fuel combustion transfers carbon to atmosphere.

Ocean acidification: CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → H+ + HCO3-; lowers pH, harms calcifying organisms (corals, molluscs, Posidonia).

Mediterranean climate change: warming faster than global average, increased heat waves, droughts, extreme rainfall events.

Climate models: general circulation models (GCMs), scenarios (SSP1-5), uncertainty from feedbacks and aerosols.

Mitigation: renewable energy, energy efficiency, carbon capture, reforestation; adaptation: coastal protection, water management, heat plans.

Air pollution vs climate: aerosols cool short-term but harm health; ozone (tropospheric) is a pollutant and greenhouse gas.

Hydrological cycle: evaporation from oceans (~86%), precipitation over land and sea, runoff returns water to oceans; balance maintained.

Precipitation types: convective (thunderstorms, flash floods), orographic, frontal; Mediterranean autumn 'gota fría' (DANA) produces intense rainfall.

Infiltration depends on soil texture, vegetation, slope, antecedent moisture; runoff coefficient varies.

Aquifer types: porous (sedimentary), karst (carbonate), fractured (crystalline); karst responds rapidly to rainfall.

Groundwater overexploitation: water table decline, land subsidence, seawater intrusion in coastal aquifers (Balearic examples).

Water quality: nitrates from agriculture, salinization, hydrocarbons, pharmaceuticals; monitoring via networks.

Drought indicators: precipitation deficit, SPI, reservoir levels, groundwater levels; drought management plans.

Flood risk in Balearics: steep catchments, short response times, urbanized floodplains, inadequate drainage.

Soil profile horizons: O (organic), A (topsoil), B (subsoil), C (weathered parent), R (bedrock); depth and properties vary with climate.

Soil erosion: water erosion (sheet, rill, gully), wind erosion; factors include rainfall erosivity, slope, vegetation cover, land management.

Soil conservation: terracing, contour ploughing, cover crops, reforestation, organic matter addition.

Ecosystem services: provisioning (food, water), regulating (climate, erosion), cultural, supporting (nutrient cycling).

Biodiversity hotspots: Mediterranean Basin is a global hotspot; Balearics have endemic species (e.g., Balearic shearwater, endemic plants).

Invasive species: impact on island ecosystems (e.g., snakes, plants); biosecurity measures.

Protected habitats: Posidonia oceanica meadows, coastal dunes, wetlands (S'Albufera), cliffs; EU Habitats Directive.

Soil contamination: heavy metals, pesticides, hydrocarbons; remediation techniques (bioremediation, excavation).

Mineral identification: hardness (Mohs), cleavage (number of planes), fracture, luster (metallic/non-metallic), streak, specific gravity, crystal form.

Common rock-forming minerals: quartz, feldspars, micas, amphiboles, pyroxenes, olivine, calcite, dolomite, clays.

Igneous textures: phaneritic (slow cooling), aphanitic (fast), porphyritic (two stages), vesicular (gas), glassy (obsidian).

Sedimentary structures: bedding, cross-bedding, ripples, graded bedding, mudcracks; indicate depositional environment.

Metamorphism types: contact (thermal), regional (dynamothermal), dynamic, burial; index minerals indicate grade.

Rock cycle processes: melting, crystallization, weathering, erosion, deposition, lithification, metamorphism.

Economic deposits: aggregates, limestone for cement, gypsum, salt, ornamental stone (Marés sandstone in Balearics).

Balearic lithologies: Mesozoic carbonates, Miocene calcarenites (marés), evaporites, Quaternary dunes.

Plate tectonics evidence: continental fit, fossil correlation, paleomagnetism, seafloor spreading, earthquake and volcano distribution.

Earth's interior: crust, mantle (upper/lower), core; lithosphere (crust + rigid upper mantle) and asthenosphere (plastic).

Isostasy: crustal buoyancy; mountains have roots; glacial rebound.

Magma generation: decompression melting at ridges, flux melting at subduction zones (water lowers melting point), hotspot melting.

Metamorphism and deformation record tectonic history; foliation and lineation indicate stress directions.

Orogeny: collision (Himalaya, Alps, Betic-Rif), subduction (Andes), extensional collapse.

Sedimentary basins: foreland, rift, passive margin, intracontinental; subsidence and fill.

Balearic tectonic setting: Alpine compression followed by Neogene extension, forming horst-graben structures and carbonate platforms.

EIA stages: screening, scoping, baseline study, impact prediction and evaluation, mitigation, environmental monitoring plan, public consultation.

Air pollutants: primary (SO2, NOx, CO, PM) vs secondary (O3, PAN); health effects and AQI.

Water pollution sources: point (industrial outfalls, sewage) vs diffuse (agriculture); treatment (primary, secondary, tertiary).

Waste: municipal, industrial, hazardous, radioactive; landfill gas and leachate; recycling rates.

Protected area categories: IUCN I-VI; Natura 2000 (SAC, SPA); Spanish figures (Parque Nacional, Parque Natural, Reserva).

Sustainability: Agenda 2030 SDGs, circular economy, life-cycle assessment, ecological footprint.

Balearic environmental issues: tourism pressure, water scarcity, waste generation, coastal development, Posidonia protection.

Environmental management tools: EMS (ISO 14001, EMAS), environmental audits, indicators, public participation.

Precambrian: formation of Earth (~4.6 Ga), first continents, oceans, life (stromatolites), Great Oxidation Event ~2.4 Ga.

Paleozoic: Cambrian explosion, colonization of land, coal forests, Pangaea assembly, end-Permian extinction.

Mesozoic: Pangaea breakup, opening of Atlantic and Tethys, dinosaurs, ammonites, end-Cretaceous impact.

Cenozoic: Alpine-Himalayan orogeny, Mediterranean formation, mammal radiation, Quaternary glaciations.

Relative vs absolute dating; unconformities record gaps in the record.

Fossils as paleoenvironmental indicators: reef corals (warm shallow), ammonites (marine), pollen (vegetation/climate).

Isotope geochemistry: δ18O paleotemperature, δ13C carbon cycle, Sr isotopes for stratigraphy.

Balearic geological history: Mesozoic carbonate platforms, Alpine compression, Neogene extension, Quaternary coastal evolution.

Mallorca geology: Serra de Tramuntana (thrust sheets, Mesozoic carbonates), central plains (Miocene marls), Serra de Llevant (folded carbonates), southern cliffs.

Menorca geology: north (Paleozoic and Mesozoic, Tramuntana) vs south (Miocene carbonates, Migjorn); two distinct geological domains.

Ibiza and Formentera: mainly Mesozoic and Cenozoic carbonates, marls and evaporites; Formentera low relief, dunes and Posidonia.

Karst features: caves (Drach, Hams, Artà), poljes (Pla de Mallorca), sinkholes; groundwater in karst aquifers.

Coastal landforms: cliffs (Tramuntana), sandy beaches (Alcúdia, Es Trenc), dunes, Posidonia banquettes.

Hazards: flash floods (torrents), coastal erosion and storms, wildfires, landslides, low seismicity.

Protected areas: Serra de Tramuntana (UNESCO), Cabrera, Sa Dragonera, S'Albufera, Mondragó; Natura 2000 network.

Water resources: karst and coastal aquifers, desalination, reuse; water scarcity in summer.

Atmospheric composition: N2 ~78%, O2 ~21%, Ar ~0.9%, CO2 ~0.04% and rising; water vapor variable.

Lapse rate: environmental ~6.5°C/km; stable vs unstable air; inversions trap pollutants.

Pressure systems: anticyclone (subsidence, clear), cyclone (ascent, precipitation); Mediterranean cyclogenesis.

Global circulation: Hadley, Ferrel, Polar cells; trade winds, westerlies, polar easterlies; Coriolis effect.

El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) affect Mediterranean rainfall.

Radiative forcing and feedbacks: water vapor (positive), ice-albedo (positive), clouds (uncertain), carbon cycle (positive).

Climate projections: temperature rise, precipitation decrease, more extremes; Mediterranean as hotspot.

Mitigation/adaptation policies: Paris Agreement, EU Green Deal, national and Balearic climate plans.

Hydrological cycle reservoirs: oceans (97%), glaciers (2%), groundwater (~0.6%), surface water, atmosphere; freshwater scarce.

Precipitation measurement: rain gauges, radar, satellites; intensity-duration-frequency (IDF) curves for design.

Runoff processes: infiltration-excess (Hortonian) vs saturation-excess; baseflow from groundwater.

Aquifer parameters: porosity, permeability, transmissivity, storativity; pumping tests.

Darcy's law: Q = K·A·(Δh/L); hydraulic gradient drives flow; groundwater flow nets.

Springs and karst: conduit flow, rapid response, turbidity after storms; protection of recharge areas.

Water management: reservoirs, dams, desalination, reuse, demand management, pricing.

Balearic water: scarce surface water, karst aquifers, seawater intrusion, desalination plants, tourism demand.

Soil texture triangle: sand, silt, clay proportions determine class; clay holds water and nutrients.

Soil pH affects nutrient availability; calcareous soils (Balearics) are alkaline, high in calcium carbonate.

Soil organic matter improves structure, water retention, fertility; Mediterranean soils often low in organic matter.

Erosion processes: raindrop impact, sheet, rill, gully, wind; erosion risk on steep slopes after fires.

Ecosystem dynamics: succession, disturbance (fire, storms), resilience; Mediterranean ecosystems adapted to fire.

Biodiversity: species richness, endemism, habitat fragmentation; island biogeography.

Conservation: protected areas, habitat restoration, invasive species control, sustainable agriculture.

Soil degradation in Balearics: erosion, salinization, sealing by urbanization and tourism infrastructure.

Risk equation: Risk = Hazard × Exposure × Vulnerability; reducing any factor reduces risk.

Seismic hazard: magnitude scales (Richter, moment magnitude), intensity scales (EMS-98); attenuation and site effects.

Volcanic hazards: lava, pyroclastic flows, ash, lahars, gases; monitoring and evacuation plans.

Landslide types: slides, flows, falls, topples; triggers (rainfall, earthquakes, excavation); safety factor.

Coastal hazards: erosion, storm surge, sea-level rise, tsunamis; coastal vulnerability indices.

Flood hazards: flash floods, river floods, coastal floods; return periods and flood maps.

Wildfire hazards: Mediterranean climate, fuel accumulation, ignition sources; prevention and suppression.

Balearic hazards: flash floods, coastal storms, wildfires, landslides, low seismicity, karst collapse.

Mineral classes: silicates, carbonates, sulfates, oxides, sulfides, halides, native elements; silicates dominant in crust.

Bowen's reaction series: olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, biotite, feldspars, quartz (mafic to felsic).

Igneous rock classification: plutonic (granite, diorite, gabbro) vs volcanic (rhyolite, andesite, basalt); silica content.

Sedimentary rock classification: clastic (grain size), chemical (composition), organic; depositional environments.

Metamorphic rocks: slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss (foliated); marble, quartzite, hornfels (non-foliated).

Rock cycle: internal (magmatism, metamorphism) and external (weathering, erosion, sedimentation) processes.

Economic resources: aggregates, cement, gypsum, salt, ornamental stone (marés), groundwater.

Balearic rocks: Mesozoic carbonates, Miocene marls and calcarenites, evaporites, Quaternary dunes.

Plate tectonics: lithospheric plates move over asthenosphere; driving forces: mantle convection, slab pull, ridge push.

Boundary types: divergent (ridges), convergent (subduction, collision), transform (strike-slip); associated landforms and hazards.

Earthquakes: elastic rebound theory; focus, epicenter, seismic waves (P, S, surface); magnitude vs intensity.

Volcanism: magma generation, eruption styles (effusive, explosive), volcanic landforms (shield, stratovolcano, caldera).

Metamorphism: contact, regional, dynamic; facies and index minerals; P-T-t paths.

Deformation: stress and strain; folds, faults, joints; brittle vs ductile regimes.

Orogeny and basins: collision, subduction, extension; foreland and rift basins.

Balearic geodynamics: Alpine compression, Neogene extension, carbonate platforms, karst.

Geological time scale: eons, eras, periods, epochs; Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic.

Major events: Great Oxidation Event, Cambrian explosion, mass extinctions, Alpine orogeny.

Paleoclimate proxies: ice cores, isotopes, tree rings, speleothems, pollen, sediments.

Isotope stratigraphy: δ18O, δ13C, Sr isotopes; chemostratigraphy.

Magnetostratigraphy: reversals, seafloor magnetic stripes, plate motion evidence.

Stratigraphic correlation: litho-, bio-, chrono-, sequence stratigraphy.

Balearic geological history: Mesozoic platforms, Alpine compression, Neogene extension, Quaternary coastal evolution.

Fossils: index fossils, paleoenvironmental indicators, evolution and extinction.

EIA process: screening, scoping, baseline, impact prediction, mitigation, monitoring, public participation.

Pollution types: air, water, soil, noise, light; sources and effects.

Waste hierarchy: prevention, reuse, recycling, recovery, disposal; circular economy.

Protected areas: IUCN categories, Natura 2000, national parks, marine protected areas.

Sustainability: SDGs, precautionary principle, polluter pays, carrying capacity.

Balearic issues: tourism pressure, water scarcity, waste, coastal development, Posidonia protection.

Environmental management tools: EMS, audits, indicators, legislation (EU, Spanish, Balearic).

Climate policy: Paris Agreement, EU Green Deal, mitigation and adaptation.

Tectonic setting: Betic-Rifian Alpine system, collision and extension, emergent promontories.

Mallorca: Serra de Tramuntana (thrusts, Mesozoic carbonates), central plains (Miocene marls), Serra de Llevant.

Menorca: north Paleozoic-Mesozoic, south Miocene carbonates (Migjorn).

Ibiza-Formentera: Mesozoic-Cenozoic carbonates, marls, evaporites; low relief, dunes.

Karst: caves, poljes, sinkholes, springs; groundwater reservoirs.

Coastal systems: cliffs, beaches, dunes, Posidonia meadows; erosion and tourism.

Hazards: flash floods, coastal storms, wildfires, landslides, low seismicity.

Protected areas: Serra de Tramuntana (UNESCO), Cabrera, Sa Dragonera, S'Albufera, Mondragó.

Atmospheric structure: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere; ozone layer in stratosphere.

Radiative balance: solar shortwave, terrestrial longwave, greenhouse gases; energy budget.

Climate controls: latitude, altitude, continentality, ocean currents, atmospheric circulation.

Mediterranean climate: hot dry summers, mild wet winters; DANA events.

Climate change: warming, sea-level rise, extremes, ocean acidification; Mediterranean hotspot.

Forcings and feedbacks: solar, volcanic, anthropogenic; water vapor, ice-albedo, clouds.

Mitigation and adaptation: renewable energy, efficiency, coastal protection, water management.

Balearic climate: water scarcity, drought risk, tourism pressure.

Water cycle: evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, groundwater.

Watershed: divide, catchment, hydrograph; rainfall-runoff relationship.

Groundwater: aquifer types, water table, recharge, discharge, Darcy's law.

Karst aquifers: conduit flow, rapid response, vulnerability.

Water quality: BOD, COD, nutrients, metals, salinity; eutrophication.

Hydrological hazards: floods, droughts, overexploitation, seawater intrusion.

Balearic water: karst and coastal aquifers, desalination, reuse, scarcity.

Management: IWRM, water footprint, protection zones.

Soil formation: CLORPT factors; horizons O, A, B, C, R.

Soil properties: texture, structure, pH, organic matter, CEC, porosity.

Soil degradation: erosion, salinization, compaction, contamination.

Ecosystems: trophic levels, productivity, succession, climax.

Mediterranean ecosystems: maquis, garrigue, pine forests, Posidonia meadows.

Biodiversity: endemism, protected areas, Natura 2000, ecosystem services.

Biogeochemical cycles: carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, water.

Balearic soils: calcareous, erosion risk, salinization, sealing.

Volcanic hazards: lava, pyroclastic flows, ash, lahars, gases; monitoring.

Seismic hazards: magnitude, intensity, site effects; hazard maps.

Slope hazards: landslides, rockfalls, debris flows; triggers and safety factor.

Coastal hazards: erosion, storm surge, sea-level rise; vulnerability indices.

Fluvial hazards: flash floods, floodplains, return periods.

Risk equation: Risk = Hazard × Exposure × Vulnerability.

Early warning and civil protection; land-use planning.

Balearic hazards: flash floods, coastal storms, wildfires, landslides, low seismicity.

EIA: screening, scoping, baseline, prediction, mitigation, monitoring, participation.

Pollution: air, water, soil, noise; sources and effects.

Waste hierarchy: prevention, reuse, recycling, recovery, disposal.

Protected areas: IUCN, Natura 2000, national parks, marine protected areas.

Sustainability: SDGs, precautionary principle, polluter pays.

Balearic issues: tourism, water, waste, coastal development, Posidonia.

Environmental management tools: EMS, audits, indicators, legislation.

Climate policy: Paris Agreement, EU Green Deal.