Balearic Islands PAU History of Philosophy cheat sheet

Plato's theory of Forms: sensible things are imperfect copies participating in eternal, immaterial Forms; knowledge (episteme) is recollection (anamnesis) of the Forms, opinion (doxa) concerns the sensible world.

Plato's divided line ranks cognition: eikasia (images), pistis (sensible objects), dianoia (mathematical reasoning), noesis (dialectical grasp of Forms); the Good is the highest Form, analogous to the sun in the cave allegory.

Aristotle's four causes: material (hyle), efficient (kinoun), formal (eidos), final (telos); the final cause explains natural processes as directed toward an end.

Aristotle's hylomorphism: every sensible substance is a composite of matter and form; form is the actuality (entelecheia) of a potentially existing body, and the soul is the form of a living body.

Aristotle distinguishes potentiality (dynamis) from actuality (energeia); change is the actualization of what exists potentially, which answers Parmenides' objection to motion.

Augustine's illuminationism: the human mind grasps eternal truths only through divine illumination; truth is interior (in interiore homine habitat veritas) and God is the light by which the mind judges.

Augustine on time (Confessions XI): time is a distension of the mind (distentio animi); past exists as memory, present as attention, future as expectation, not as independent realities.

Augustine on evil: evil is not a substance but a privation of good (privatio boni); free will (liberum arbitrium) explains moral evil, and grace is required for the will to choose rightly.

Aquinas reconciles Aristotle with Christian doctrine: reason and faith are distinct but harmonious, grace perfects nature, and the five ways (quinque viae) argue for God from motion, causation, contingency, gradation, and finality.

Descartes' method of doubt suspends all beliefs that can be doubted; the cogito ('I think, therefore I am') survives because even the evil demon hypothesis presupposes a thinking subject.

Descartes' criterion of clear and distinct perception grounds the proof of God; God's veracity guarantees that clear and distinct ideas are true, breaking the circle of relying on God to validate clarity.

Cartesian dualism: res cogitans (thinking substance, defined by thought) and res extensa (extended substance, defined by extension) are really distinct; the pineal gland is proposed as the point of interaction.

Hume's fork: relations of ideas (a priori, demonstrably certain, e.g. geometry) versus matters of fact (a posteriori, contingent, grounded in experience); only the former carry logical necessity.

Hume's copy principle: every simple idea is derived from a preceding impression; ideas without corresponding impressions (e.g. the self as substance) are suspect.

Hume on causation: we never perceive a necessary connection between cause and effect, only constant conjunction and temporal priority; the idea of necessity arises from custom or habit of the imagination.

Hume's problem of induction: past regularities cannot justify future predictions without assuming the uniformity of nature, which itself cannot be demonstrated without circularity.

Hume's bundle theory of the self: introspection reveals only particular perceptions in flux, no persistent ego; personal identity is a fiction generated by resemblance and causality among perceptions.

Rationalism versus empiricism: rationalists (Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz) hold that significant knowledge can be attained by reason alone; empiricists (Locke, Berkeley, Hume) hold that all knowledge originates in experience.

Kant's Copernican revolution: objects conform to our cognition rather than cognition to objects; space and time are a priori forms of intuition, and the categories are a priori concepts of the understanding.

Kant's analytic/synthetic and a priori/a posteriori distinctions combine into synthetic a priori judgments (e.g. arithmetic, causality), which are possible because they structure experience.

Kant's phenomena/noumena distinction: we know things only as they appear under our forms of intuition; the thing in itself (Ding an sich) is thinkable but not knowable.

Kant's categorical imperative: act only on maxims that could become universal laws; treat humanity always as an end and never merely as a means; the will is autonomous when it legislates this law to itself.

Rousseau's social contract: legitimate authority rests on the general will (volonté générale), which aims at the common good; individuals exchange natural liberty for civil liberty and moral freedom under law.

Rousseau on the state of nature: humans are naturally free and compassionate (pity), and inequality and vice arise from socialization, property, and amour-propre (self-love based on comparison).

Hegel's dialectic: thought and history advance through contradiction and its resolution (thesis, antithesis, synthesis); the negative is a moment internal to the development of the concept (Begriff).

Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit traces the education of consciousness from sense-certainty through self-consciousness (master-slave dialectic) to absolute knowing; Spirit (Geist) is realized in ethical and historical life.

Hegel's dictum 'the rational is the real': philosophy grasps its time in thought (the Owl of Minerva flies at dusk); history is the progressive realization of freedom, and the state is the actuality of the ethical idea.

Marx's historical materialism: the mode of production of material life conditions social, political, and intellectual life; social being determines consciousness, not the reverse.

Marx's base and superstructure: productive forces plus relations of production form the economic base; law, politics, religion, and ideology constitute the superstructure that the base conditions.

Marx on alienation (Entfremdung): under capitalism the worker is estranged from the product, the labor process, species-being, and other humans; surplus value is extracted from unpaid labor time.

Nietzsche's critique of morality: slave morality inverts aristocratic values, valorizing weakness and ressentiment; master morality affirms strength and self-overcoming.

Nietzsche's will to power (Wille zur Macht) is the fundamental drive of life, not mere domination; nihilism follows from the collapse of higher values, and the Übermensch creates new values.

Nietzsche's eternal recurrence is a thought experiment testing affirmation of life: could you will to live this exact life infinitely many times?

Ortega y Gasset's perspectivism: 'I am I and my circumstance' (yo soy yo y mi circunstancia); reality is known from a perspective, and truth is the sum of partial perspectives.

Ortega's ratio-vitalism (razón vital): reason must be integrated with life; the mass man of the revolt of the masses is the average individual who lives without demanding excellence or responsibility.

Sartre's existentialism: existence precedes essence; humans are radically free and responsible, condemned to be free; bad faith (mauvaise foi) is denying freedom by adopting fixed roles.

Identify the passage's thesis, then its argument structure (premises, inference, conclusion); distinguish what the author asserts from what he merely reports or refutes.

Contextualize the excerpt: locate it in the author's work and intellectual period, and name the philosophical problem it addresses and the opponent it targets.

Explain key technical terms in context (e.g. substance, idea, impression, a priori, general will, alienation), not in isolation, and show how the author uses them.

Distinguish types of claim: analytic versus synthetic, a priori versus a posteriori, descriptive versus normative; identify modal claims (necessary, contingent, possible).

Detect argumentative moves: reductio ad absurdum, counterexample, thought experiment (evil demon, state of nature, eternal recurrence), and circular reasoning.

Evaluate the argument critically: test validity and soundness, check for hidden premises, equivocation, and unstated assumptions.

Write the commentary with a clear structure: thesis identification, conceptual analysis, argument reconstruction, critical assessment, and conclusion on the text's significance.

Vocabulary precision: 'valid' concerns form, 'sound' adds true premises; 'cause' in Hume is constant conjunction, in Aristotle one of four explanatory factors; do not conflate senses across authors.

Plato versus Aristotle on universals: Plato posits separate transcendent Forms; Aristotle holds forms are immanent in particular substances (universale in re).

Descartes versus Hume on the self: Descartes finds a substantial thinking ego through doubt; Hume finds only a bundle of perceptions with no substantial self.

Descartes versus Hume on causation: Descartes accepts causal principles as clear and distinct a priori truths; Hume reduces causal necessity to habitual expectation grounded in experience.

Kant versus Hume: Kant accepts Hume's claim that causal necessity is not given in sensation but explains it as an a priori category constitutive of experience, not as custom.

Kant versus Rousseau on freedom: Rousseau locates moral freedom in obedience to the general will; Kant grounds autonomy in the rational will's self-legislation of the categorical imperative.

Hegel versus Kant: Kant's thing in itself and rigid categories are criticized by Hegel, who historicizes the categories and treats contradiction as productive rather than a limit.

Marx versus Hegel: Marx retains Hegel's dialectic but inverts it, grounding historical development in material production rather than in Spirit's self-realization.

Nietzsche versus Rousseau: Rousseau trusts natural pity and the general will as morally sound; Nietzsche suspects morality itself as a symptom of ressentiment and herd values.

Ortega versus Descartes: Descartes begins from the isolated cogito; Ortega insists the self is always self-with-circumstance, so life is the radical reality to be analyzed.

Structure the essay: introduction stating the thesis, body paragraphs each defending one premise with textual evidence, and a conclusion that acknowledges limits of the position.

Define contested terms (freedom, justice, truth, reality) at the outset; an argument that shifts meanings commits equivocation.

Use valid forms explicitly: modus ponens, modus tollens, disjunctive syllogism, and reductio ad absurdum; name the form when reconstructing an author's argument.

Distinguish deductive validity from inductive strength; a counterexample defeats a universal claim but not a statistical one.

Support claims with precise references to authors and works (e.g. Kant, Groundwork, second formulation) rather than vague appeals to 'philosophers'.

Anticipate the strongest objection (steel-man) and reply to it; mere assertion of a contrary view is not a refutation.

Avoid genetic and ad hominem fallacies: an argument's truth is independent of its author's motives or biography.

Conclude with a qualified thesis: state which parts of the position are established, which remain open, and what evidence would change your view.

For PAU-style text commentary, identify author, work, and period first, then summarize the passage's central thesis in one sentence before analyzing concepts.

Quote sparingly and accurately from the passage; paraphrase the argument in your own words to demonstrate comprehension rather than memorized phrasing.

Allocate time by weighting: commentary and comparison questions typically demand more developed argument than short definition items.

When comparing authors, use explicit contrast markers (unlike, whereas, by contrast) and state the shared problem before the divergence.

For the personal reasoned essay, take a defensible position, argue for it, and address at least one serious objection; a balanced but uncommitted summary scores poorly.

Define technical vocabulary on first use, especially when translating terms (e.g. Geist, volonté générale, Entfremdung, distentio animi).

Connect each author to the domain question asked; do not import irrelevant biography or historical anecdote as a substitute for argument.

Check the conclusion against the question: restate the thesis and show how the body's premises support it.

Plato: knowledge is of Forms, opinion of sensibles; the cave allegory maps education as turning the soul from shadows to the Good.

Aristotle: virtue is a mean between extremes determined by practical wisdom (phronesis); the contemplative life is the highest human activity.

Augustine: faith seeking understanding (crede ut intelligas); grace precedes and enables meritorious action, against Pelagianism.

Aquinas: natural law is the rational creature's participation in eternal law; the four laws are eternal, natural, human, and divine.

Descartes: the provisional morality and the method of analysis (reduce to simples) accompany the metaphysical doubt; the res cogitans is known before the body.

Hume: the is/ought gap; moral judgments express sentiment, not reason, and reason is the slave of the passions.

Kant: the three questions (what can I know, what ought I do, what may I hope) correspond to Critique of Pure Reason, Practical Reason, and Judgment.

Hegel: the master-slave dialectic shows self-consciousness requires recognition by another; labor and the fear of death transform the slave's consciousness.

Marx and Nietzsche both offer critique of ideology, but Marx diagnoses economic alienation while Nietzsche diagnoses moral and psychological decadence.

Ortega's 'I am I and my circumstance' makes life the primary reality; philosophy's task is to articulate the self's relation to its circumstances.

Ortega's perspectivism does not entail relativism: each perspective is partial but compatible with a structured reality, and truth emerges from integrating perspectives.

Sartre: existence precedes essence means humans first exist and then define themselves through choices; there is no fixed human nature to excuse action.

Sartre's bad faith: adopting a role (waiter, coward) as if it were a fixed essence denies the freedom one actually has.

Heidegger's Dasein is being-there, characterized by thrownness, projection, and being-toward-death; authenticity requires confronting finitude.

Camus' absurd arises from the clash between the human demand for meaning and the world's silence; revolt affirms life without appeal to transcendence.

Existentialism's common core: freedom, responsibility, anxiety, and the rejection of fixed essences; differences lie in whether meaning is created or disclosed.

Ortega's mass-man and Nietzsche's last man both diagnose mediocrity and conformity as threats to genuine individuality and cultural vitality.

Marx's critique of ideology and Nietzsche's genealogy of morals both unmask supposedly neutral values as products of power and historical conditions.

Distinguish exposition from evaluation: first reconstruct the author's argument faithfully, then assess it; conflating the two weakens both.

Use primary-text evidence: cite chapter or section (e.g. Hume, Enquiry, Section IV; Kant, Groundwork, Section II) rather than secondary summaries.

Define a thesis as a contestable claim, not a topic; 'Hume on causation' is a topic, 'Hume's account reduces causation to habit' is a thesis.

Avoid anachronism: do not attribute Kantian categories to Aristotle or Cartesian dualism to Plato; note conceptual differences when comparing across periods.

Track the argument's scope: a claim about how we acquire ideas differs from a claim about what exists; keep epistemology and metaphysics distinct.

When using thought experiments, state the intuition they are meant to elicit and whether that intuition is reliable.

Precision in translation: note original terms (distentio animi, volonté générale, Entfremdung, Wille zur Macht) and their standard English renderings.

Revise for clarity: one claim per paragraph, explicit connectives, and no rhetorical questions substituting for argument.

The problem of knowledge: rationalists ground certainty in reason and innate ideas; empiricists in experience; Kant synthesizes both by making experience structured by a priori forms.

The problem of freedom: determinism (Hume's compatibilism) versus libertarian freedom (Descartes, Sartre) versus autonomy as self-legislation (Kant, Rousseau).

The problem of the self: substance (Descartes), bundle (Hume), historical-spiritual realization (Hegel), embodied circumstance (Ortega), project (Sartre).

The problem of God and evil: Augustine's privation theory and Aquinas' five ways versus Hume's evidential problem of evil and Nietzsche's critique of Christian morality.

The problem of history: Hegel's teleological progress of freedom versus Marx's materialist dialectic versus Nietzsche's genealogical critique of moral values.

The problem of the state: Rousseau's general will, Hegel's ethical state, Marx's class state to be transcended, Ortega's mass society, and existentialist individual responsibility.

The problem of language and meaning: from Plato's Forms to Nietzsche's claim that truths are metaphors, and Ortega's integration of reason with vital perspective.

The is/ought problem (Hume) underlies later critiques of ideology and morality in Marx and Nietzsche, who explain normative claims by non-normative conditions.

Plato: Republic (cave, divided line, sun), Meno (recollection), Phaedo (Forms and immortality).

Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics (virtue, eudaimonia), Metaphysics (four causes, substance), De Anima (soul as form).

Augustine: Confessions (time, memory, conversion), City of God (two cities), On Free Will (evil and freedom).

Aquinas: Summa Theologiae (five ways, natural law, faith and reason).

Descartes: Meditations on First Philosophy (doubt, cogito, God, dualism), Discourse on Method.

Hume: A Treatise of Human Nature (impressions, causation, self), An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (induction, miracles).

Kant: Critique of Pure Reason (synthetic a priori, categories), Groundwork (categorical imperative), Critique of Practical Reason.

Rousseau: The Social Contract (general will), Discourse on Inequality (amour-propre, property).

Hegel: Phenomenology of Spirit (master-slave, absolute knowing), Philosophy of Right (ethical life, state).

Marx: Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts (alienation), Capital (surplus value), The German Ideology (historical materialism).

Nietzsche: On the Genealogy of Morality (master/slave morality), Thus Spoke Zarathustra (Übermensch, eternal recurrence), Beyond Good and Evil.

Ortega y Gasset: Meditations on Quixote ('I am I and my circumstance'), The Revolt of the Masses, What Is Philosophy?

Sartre: Being and Nothingness (bad faith, freedom), Existentialism Is a Humanism (existence precedes essence).

Anamnesis (Plato): recollection of the Forms by the soul; learning is remembering what the soul knew before embodiment.

Entelecheia (Aristotle): actuality or complete realization; the soul is the entelechy of a naturally organized body.

Privatio boni (Augustine): evil as absence or corruption of good rather than a positive substance.

Cogito ergo sum (Descartes): the indubitable first truth that a thinking subject exists whenever it thinks.

Impression versus idea (Hume): impressions are vivid perceptions of sensation or reflection; ideas are faint copies of impressions in thought.

Synthetic a priori (Kant): a judgment that adds to knowledge yet is universally and necessarily valid independent of experience, e.g. 7+5=12.

Categorical imperative (Kant): an unconditional moral law binding on all rational agents regardless of desires or consequences.

Volonté générale (Rousseau): the will of the citizen body aimed at the common good, distinct from the sum of private wills (volonté de tous).

Aufhebung (Hegel): dialectical sublation that cancels, preserves, and elevates a prior moment into a higher unity.

Entfremdung (Marx): alienation or estrangement of the worker from the product, process, and essence of labor under capitalism.

Wille zur Macht (Nietzsche): the will to power as the fundamental tendency of life toward growth, overcoming, and value creation.

Razón vital (Ortega): vital reason, the integration of rational analysis with the concrete circumstances of life.

Mauvaise foi (Sartre): bad faith, the self-deception by which one denies one's freedom by adopting a fixed identity.

Modus ponens: if P then Q; P; therefore Q. Modus tollens: if P then Q; not Q; therefore not P. Affirming the consequent and denying the antecedent are invalid.

Reductio ad absurdum: assume the negation of the thesis, derive a contradiction, conclude the thesis; used by Descartes (evil demon) and Kant (antinomies).

Counterexample defeats a universal claim; a single exception to 'all knowledge derives from experience' refutes the strict empiricist thesis unless qualified.

Equivocation: shifting a term's meaning mid-argument, e.g. 'free' as absence of constraint versus 'free' as autonomous self-legislation.

Circularity: Descartes' appeal to God's veracity to validate clear and distinct ideas is charged with presupposing what it proves.

Genetic fallacy: rejecting a belief because of its origin; Nietzsche's genealogy of morals risks this unless it also shows the values are false.

Is/ought gap (Hume): descriptive premises alone cannot entail a normative conclusion; a normative premise must be supplied.

Straw man versus steel man: refute the strongest version of the opposing view; misrepresenting it is a fallacy of relevance.

Ad hominem and appeal to authority: the author's character or prestige does not establish the truth of the claim.

Thesis statement: one sentence that states a contestable position and previews the argument's structure.

Body paragraph template: claim, evidence from primary text, explanation linking evidence to claim, then transition.

Use conceptual analysis where the question asks 'what is X': distinguish necessary and sufficient conditions and test with counterexamples.

Use comparative analysis where the question asks 'compare A and B': identify the shared problem, then contrast premises, method, and conclusion.

Critical evaluation: state the strongest objection, reply on the author's behalf, then judge whether the reply succeeds.

Conclusion: restate the qualified thesis and note what further argument or evidence would settle the issue.

Assessment favors precision, textual support, and coherent structure over length; irrelevant historical narrative loses marks.

Check for internal consistency: do not defend determinism in one paragraph and libertarian freedom in the next without reconciling them.

Plato and Aristotle respond to the Presocratics and Sophists; Plato's Forms answer relativism, Aristotle's empiricism corrects Plato's transcendence.

Augustine mediates Platonism and Christianity; Aquinas mediates Aristotle and Christianity, receiving Aristotle through Arabic commentators such as Averroes.

Descartes responds to Renaissance skepticism (Montaigne) and founds modern epistemology; his dualism sets the mind-body problem for later thought.

Hume's empiricism awakens Kant from dogmatic slumber; Kant's critical philosophy reframes both rationalism and empiricism.

Rousseau influences Kant's moral autonomy and the French Revolution's conception of popular sovereignty.

Hegel's idealism dominates nineteenth-century thought and provokes reactions from Marx (materialism), Kierkegaard (individual existence), and Nietzsche (genealogy).

Marx and Nietzsche shape twentieth-century critique of ideology, culture, and morality.

Ortega y Gasset brings German phenomenology and historicism into Spanish-language philosophy and addresses mass society.

Sartre and Camus popularize existentialism after World War II, emphasizing freedom, absurdity, and responsibility.

Confusing Plato's Forms with Aristotle's forms: the former are separate and transcendent, the latter immanent in substances.

Equating Hume's skepticism with total denial of causation; Hume denies perceived necessary connection, not regular succession.

Treating Kant's thing in itself as knowable; it is a limiting concept (Grenzbegriff), not an object of possible experience.

Reducing Rousseau's general will to majority opinion; the general will aims at the common good and can be misidentified by the majority.

Reading Hegel's dialectic as a mechanical thesis-antithesis-synthesis formula; Hegel's own term is speculative or dialectical movement.

Attributing to Marx a simple economic determinism; he holds that the economic base conditions but does not mechanically cause all superstructural phenomena.

Treating Nietzsche's will to power as mere political domination; it is a broader drive toward growth and self-overcoming.

Confusing Ortega's perspectivism with relativism; perspectives are partial but integrate into a structured truth.

Confusing Sartre's 'existence precedes essence' with nihilism; it grounds radical responsibility rather than denying all value.

Read the passage twice: first for the overall thesis, then for the argument's steps and the function of each sentence.

Identify the author's target: whom is the passage arguing against (e.g. skeptics, dogmatists, empiricists, rationalists)?

Locate the passage's key term and check whether the author redefines it from ordinary usage (e.g. Hume's 'cause', Kant's 'idea').

Reconstruct the argument in premise-conclusion form and test its validity before assessing truth.

Note rhetorical devices (irony, metaphor, hyperbole) and explain their argumentative function rather than ignoring them.

Explain the passage's significance within the work and the author's broader system.

Offer a critical judgment: identify an unstated assumption or a plausible objection and assess the author's resources for replying.

Conclude by stating what the passage establishes and what it leaves unresolved.

Ancient versus modern: ancient philosophy centers on the good life and cosmic order; modern philosophy centers on the epistemic subject and the foundations of knowledge.

Rationalism versus empiricism: innate ideas and deduction versus experience and induction; Kant's synthesis makes experience possible through a priori structures.

Enlightenment versus Romantic critique: Enlightenment trusts universal reason and progress; Rousseau and later critics emphasize sentiment, community, and the costs of civilization.

Idealism versus materialism: Hegel's Spirit-driven history versus Marx's material base; both use dialectical method but invert its grounding.

Teleology versus genealogy: Aristotle and Hegel see purpose in nature and history; Nietzsche and Marx expose values and institutions as historical products.

Individual versus collective: Descartes and Sartre begin from the individual; Rousseau, Hegel, and Marx emphasize social and historical constitution.

Perspective versus absolute knowledge: Hegel claims absolute knowing; Ortega and Nietzsche insist on perspectival and historically situated knowledge.

Freedom as autonomy versus freedom as absence of interference: Kant and Rousseau favor autonomy; Hume and liberals favor non-interference.

Razón versus entendimiento (Kant): reason (Vernunft) seeks the unconditioned and generates ideas; understanding (Verstand) applies categories to intuition.

Idea versus impresión (Hume): impressions are vivid original perceptions; ideas are faint copies lacking the force of impressions.

Sustancia (Descartes): that which exists in such a way as to depend on no other thing for its existence; thought and extension are created substances.

Contrato social (Rousseau): the agreement by which individuals constitute a sovereign people governed by the general will.

Dialéctica (Hegel): the movement of contradiction and resolution through which the concept develops; not a mere method of debate.

Alienación (Marx): the worker's estrangement from the product and process of labor, and from human species-being.

Transvaloración (Nietzsche): the revaluation of all values, replacing slave morality with values affirming life and strength.

Circunstancia (Ortega): the concrete historical and social setting inseparable from the self; 'I am I and my circumstance'.

Mala fe (Sartre): bad faith, the flight from freedom into a fixed identity or role.

Imperativo categórico (Kant): the unconditional moral law formulated as universalizability and as treating humanity as an end.

Plato versus Descartes: both seek certainty beyond the senses, but Plato grounds it in transcendent Forms and recollection, Descartes in the cogito and clear and distinct ideas.

Aristotle versus Hume on causation: Aristotle treats final and formal causes as real explanatory factors; Hume restricts causation to observed regular succession.

Kant versus Plato on the a priori: Plato's a priori truths are recollections of a separate realm; Kant's are structures of the knowing subject that make experience possible.

Hume versus Kant on the self: Hume's self is a bundle of perceptions; Kant's transcendental unity of apperception is the formal condition of any unified experience.

Hegel versus Kant on reality: Kant limits knowledge to phenomena; Hegel claims the thing in itself is unknowable only because of a false abstract conception of the subject-object relation.

Ortega versus Descartes on certainty: Ortega rejects the isolated cogito and begins from the indissoluble unity of self and circumstance.

Nietzsche versus Plato on truth: Plato locates truth in immutable Forms; Nietzsche treats truths as metaphors whose status is historical and perspectival.

Marx versus Hegel on reality: reality is material and economic for Marx, spiritual and conceptual for Hegel; both see history as dialectical development.

Aristotle versus Kant on ethics: Aristotle's virtue ethics centers on character and the mean determined by phronesis; Kant's deontology centers on duty and the categorical imperative.

Rousseau versus Hobbes on the state of nature: Hobbes sees war of all against all requiring absolute sovereignty; Rousseau sees natural freedom and pity corrupted by society.

Rousseau versus Kant on freedom: Rousseau's civil freedom is obedience to the general will; Kant's autonomy is the rational will legislating the moral law to itself.

Hegel versus Rousseau on the state: Rousseau's general will is abstract and can lead to tyranny of the majority; Hegel's ethical state is the concrete actuality of freedom in institutions.

Marx versus Hegel on the state: Hegel treats the state as the actuality of the ethical idea; Marx treats it as an instrument of class rule within the superstructure.

Nietzsche versus Kant on morality: Kant grounds morality in universal reason; Nietzsche sees it as a historically contingent valuation rooted in ressentiment.

Ortega versus Nietzsche on the individual: both critique mass conformity, but Ortega stresses circumstance and vital reason while Nietzsche stresses value creation and will to power.

Sartre versus Kant on freedom: Kant defines freedom as autonomy under the moral law; Sartre defines freedom as the unconditional capacity to choose, with responsibility but no fixed law.

Plato and Aristotle agree that humans are rational animals; Plato stresses the tripartite soul (reason, spirit, appetite) and Aristotle the rational activity of the soul.

Augustine and Aquinas both hold that humans are made in God's image and oriented to God; Augustine emphasizes grace and the will, Aquinas the harmony of reason and faith.

Hobbes and Rousseau differ on natural sociability: Hobbes emphasizes fear and competition; Rousseau emphasizes natural pity and perfectibility.

Hegel and Marx both see history as directional and dialectical; Hegel sees the realization of freedom in Spirit, Marx the development of productive forces and class struggle.

Nietzsche and Marx both critique modern culture and morality; Marx diagnoses alienation and exploitation, Nietzsche decadence and slave morality.

Ortega and Hegel both situate the individual in historical circumstance; Hegel sees Spirit realizing itself, Ortega sees life as the radical reality of self-with-circumstance.

Sartre and Heidegger both analyze existence; Sartre emphasizes radical freedom and bad faith, Heidegger authenticity and being-toward-death.

Camus and Sartre both begin from the absurd or the absence of given meaning; Camus embraces revolt without transcendence, Sartre insists on engaged freedom and responsibility.

'Explica' (explain) requires exposition of the author's doctrine with clear concepts, not evaluation.

'Comenta' (comment) requires thesis identification, argument reconstruction, and critical assessment of the passage.

'Compara' (compare) requires an explicit contrast on shared questions, with premises, method, and conclusions distinguished.

'Valora' or 'justifica' (evaluate/justify) requires a defended position with objections and replies, not mere opinion.

'Define' requires necessary and sufficient conditions plus a counterexample test where possible.

'Relaciona' (relate) requires showing how one concept or author bears on another, with an explicit link.

'Analiza' (analyze) requires breaking a claim into parts and examining each part's function in the argument.

'Argumenta' (argue) requires premises, inference, conclusion, and anticipation of objections.

Attribute claims accurately: the cogito appears in the Discourse on Method (1637) and the Meditations (1641), not in a work titled 'Cogito'.

Hume's is/ought passage is in A Treatise of Human Nature (Book III), not the Enquiry.

Kant's categorical imperative formulations appear in the Groundwork (1785), not the Critique of Pure Reason.

Rousseau's general will is developed in The Social Contract (1762); the Discourse on Inequality (1755) treats amour-propre and property.

Hegel's master-slave dialectic is in the Phenomenology of Spirit (1807), section on self-consciousness.

Marx's theory of alienation is in the Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts (1844); surplus value is developed in Capital (1867).

Nietzsche's master/slave morality is in On the Genealogy of Morality (1887), First Essay.

Ortega's 'I am I and my circumstance' opens Meditations on Quixote (1914).

Sartre's 'existence precedes essence' is stated in Existentialism Is a Humanism (1946) and analyzed in Being and Nothingness (1943).

Knowledge versus opinion: episteme concerns what is necessary and universal; doxa concerns the contingent and particular.

Validity versus truth: an argument can be valid with false premises; soundness requires both validity and true premises.

Necessary versus contingent: necessary truths hold in all possible worlds; contingent truths depend on how the world happens to be.

A priori versus innate: a priori concerns justification independent of experience; innate concerns the origin of ideas in the mind.

Analytic versus synthetic: analytic judgments explicate the subject concept; synthetic judgments amplify it.

Phenomenon versus noumenon: phenomena are objects as they appear under our forms; noumena are things as they are in themselves.

Alienation versus exploitation: alienation concerns estrangement from labor and self; exploitation concerns extraction of surplus value.

Ressentiment versus resentment: Nietzsche's ressentiment is a creative revaluation by the weak, not ordinary anger.

Perspective versus relativism: a perspective is a partial but structured access to reality; relativism denies any trans-perspectival truth.

Open with the shared problem, then state the contrast thesis that will organize the essay.

Devote one paragraph to each author's position on the problem, using primary-text evidence.

Add a paragraph of direct comparison identifying the precise point of divergence (premises, method, or conclusion).

Assess which position is stronger and why, addressing at least one objection to your preferred view.

Show the stakes: explain why the disagreement matters for a broader question (freedom, knowledge, morality).

Conclude with a qualified judgment rather than a summary of what was already said.

Use consistent terminology across authors and flag where the same word carries different meanings.

Avoid parallel but disconnected summaries; every paragraph should advance the comparison.

Plato: the soul is tripartite and immortal; reason should rule appetite and spirit, and knowledge is recollection.

Aristotle: the soul is the form of the body, not a separate substance; intellect (nous) has a special status.

Augustine: the self is known through interiority and memory; the mind is an image of the Trinity.

Descartes: mind and body are really distinct substances interacting in the pineal gland; the self is essentially a thinking thing.

Hume: the self is a bundle of perceptions with no underlying substance; identity is a fiction of the imagination.

Kant: the transcendental unity of apperception is the formal condition of experience, not a substantial soul.

Hegel: self-consciousness requires recognition by another; spirit is realized in intersubjective life.

Ortega: the self is inseparable from circumstance; life is the radical reality.

Sartre: consciousness is intentional and empty of fixed essence; the self is constituted by projects and choices.

Augustine: God is immutable and eternal; evil is privation; grace is necessary for salvation.

Aquinas: the five ways argue from empirical features of the world to a first cause; analogy allows limited talk about God.

Descartes: God's existence is proved from the idea of a perfect being and from the ontological argument; God guarantees clear and distinct ideas.

Hume: the argument from design is weakened by the problem of evil and by the weakness of analogical inference.

Kant: the traditional proofs fail; God is a postulate of practical reason, not an object of theoretical knowledge.

Hegel: God is Spirit realizing itself in history; the death of God is a moment in the development of absolute knowing.

Nietzsche: the death of God announces the collapse of the highest values and the onset of nihilism.

Marx: religion is the opium of the people, a consolation that masks material suffering.

Sartre and Camus: the absence of God grounds the absurd and radical human responsibility.

Augustine: history is linear and providential, moving from the earthly city to the city of God.

Hegel: history is the progressive realization of freedom; world-historical individuals are instruments of Spirit's cunning.

Marx: history is the history of class struggles; the mode of production drives historical stages toward communism.

Nietzsche: history can burden life; critical, monumental, and antiquarian history must serve life rather than replace it.

Ortega: history is the articulation of generations and perspectives; the past is a circumstance to be assumed.

Kant: history can be read as if nature had a plan, with unsocial sociability driving progress toward perpetual peace.

Rousseau: the progress of the arts and sciences has corrupted morals; history is not simply improvement.

Camus and Sartre: history has no guaranteed meaning, so responsibility falls on human action.

The cogito is a performance, not a premise: doubting presupposes a doubter.

Hume's fork leaves only relations of ideas and matters of fact; the missing impression refutes the idea of necessary connection.

Kant's synthetic a priori solves the Humean problem by making causality a category constitutive of experience.

Rousseau's general will is not the will of all; it aims at the common good and is always right in principle.

Hegel's dialectic is not mechanical; contradiction is internal to the concept and is resolved by sublation (Aufhebung).

Marx inverts Hegel: the base conditions the superstructure, and alienation is rooted in the labor process.

Nietzsche's eternal recurrence is a test of affirmation, not a cosmological doctrine.

Ortega's 'I am I and my circumstance' makes life the primary reality and grounds vital reason.

Sartre's bad faith is the denial of freedom through a fixed identity; authenticity requires owning one's freedom.

Choose a position you can defend with reasons, not one you merely find appealing.

State the thesis in the introduction and preview the argument's structure.

Support each premise with textual evidence or a clear example.

Address the strongest objection and reply to it rather than ignoring it.

Use precise philosophical vocabulary consistently and define contested terms.

End with a qualified thesis acknowledging what remains open.

Avoid rhetorical questions and unsupported appeals to common sense.

Revise for coherence: each paragraph should make one clear claim and support it.

Plato: freedom is the rule of reason over appetite, not the absence of constraint.

Augustine: freedom is the capacity to choose rightly, enabled by grace; the will is bound by sin without grace.

Descartes: freedom is the will's ability to affirm or deny what the intellect presents, and the will is infinite in scope.

Hume: freedom is the ability to act according to one's desires without external constraint; compatibilism reconciles it with determinism.

Kant: freedom is autonomy, the will's self-legislation of the moral law; it is a postulate of practical reason.

Rousseau: freedom is obedience to the general will; natural liberty is exchanged for civil and moral liberty.

Hegel: freedom is realized in ethical life (family, civil society, state) and in history.

Marx: freedom requires overcoming alienation and class domination.

Nietzsche: freedom is self-overcoming and creation of values.

Ortega: freedom is inseparable from circumstance and responsibility.

Sartre: freedom is radical and inescapable; we are condemned to be free.

Plato: reason (nous) grasps the Forms and rules the soul.

Aristotle: reason is theoretical (contemplation) and practical (phronesis); the contemplative life is highest.

Augustine: reason is illuminated by God and serves faith.

Descartes: reason is the natural light, the same in all humans, and proceeds by method.

Hume: reason is the slave of the passions; it discovers relations of ideas and matters of fact but does not motivate action.

Kant: understanding applies categories to intuition; reason seeks the unconditioned and generates ideas.

Hegel: reason is dialectical and historical; the rational is the real.

Marx: reason is embedded in material conditions; ideology can distort it.

Nietzsche: reason is a tool of the will to power and a product of interpretation.

Ortega: reason must be vital, integrated with circumstance.

Sartre: reason is a project of consciousness, not a fixed faculty.

Plato: the Form of the Good is the highest object of knowledge and the source of value.

Aristotle: eudaimonia is the highest good, achieved through virtuous activity in accordance with reason.

Augustine: the highest good is God; evil is privation and sin is a turning away from God.

Aquinas: the good is what all things seek; natural law directs humans toward their proper end.

Kant: the good will is the only thing good without qualification; right action is determined by the categorical imperative.

Rousseau: the general will aims at the common good; virtue is love of the common good.

Hegel: the good is realized in ethical life and in the concrete institutions of the state.

Marx: the good is human emancipation and the overcoming of alienation.

Nietzsche: values are created; good and evil are historical valuations, and the Übermensch creates new values.

Ortega: the good is realized in authentic life and in the articulation of circumstance.

Sartre: value is created by choice; there is no pre-given good.

Plato: truth is the grasp of the Forms, especially the Good.

Aristotle: truth is saying of what is that it is, and of what is not that it is not.

Augustine: truth is God; the mind grasps eternal truths through illumination.

Descartes: truth is clear and distinct perception, guaranteed by God.

Hume: truth concerns relations of ideas and matters of fact; necessary connection is not perceived.

Kant: truth is the agreement of cognition with its object, but the object is always phenomenal.

Hegel: truth is the whole; it is the self-development of the concept.

Marx: truth is practical and historical; ideology distorts it.

Nietzsche: truth is a mobile army of metaphors; there are no facts, only interpretations.

Ortega: truth is perspectival but not relativistic; perspectives integrate.

Sartre: truth is disclosed through engaged action.

Plato: the just state mirrors the tripartite soul, with philosopher-kings ruling.

Aristotle: the polis is a natural community aiming at the good life; humans are political animals.

Augustine: the earthly city and the city of God are distinguished by their loves.

Aquinas: the state is natural and necessary, but subordinate to the spiritual end.

Hobbes: the state is instituted to escape the war of all against all.

Rousseau: the state is legitimate when governed by the general will.

Hegel: the state is the actuality of the ethical idea; it is not merely a contract.

Marx: the state is an instrument of class rule and is to wither away.

Ortega: mass society threatens the state; the masses must assume responsibility.

Sartre: the state is a project of collective action, not a fixed essence.

Plato: the individual is a soul whose justice is the rule of reason.

Aristotle: the individual is a political animal whose good is realized in community.

Augustine: the individual is a soul oriented to God, torn between sin and grace.

Hobbes: individuals are naturally competitive and require a sovereign.

Rousseau: individuals are naturally good but corrupted by society; amour-propre distorts self-love.

Kant: individuals are ends in themselves and members of a kingdom of ends.

Hegel: individuals are constituted by ethical life and history.

Marx: individuals are social beings whose essence is the ensemble of social relations.

Nietzsche: individuals are called to self-overcoming and value creation.

Ortega: the individual is self-with-circumstance; mass man is the average individual.

Sartre: individuals are radically free and responsible.

Augustine: history is providential and linear, moving toward the city of God.

Hegel: history is the progressive realization of freedom.

Marx: history is the history of class struggles and the development of productive forces.

Nietzsche: history must serve life; the past can burden or enable action.

Ortega: history is the articulation of generations and perspectives.

Kant: history can be read as if nature had a plan, with unsocial sociability driving progress.

Rousseau: progress in the arts and sciences has corrupted morals.

Camus and Sartre: history has no guaranteed meaning; responsibility falls on human action.

Plato: the self is a tripartite soul, immortal and oriented to the Forms.

Aristotle: the self is a hylomorphic composite; the soul is the form of the body.

Augustine: the self is known through interiority and memory, oriented to God.

Descartes: the self is a thinking substance, really distinct from the body.

Hume: the self is a bundle of perceptions with no underlying substance.

Kant: the self is the transcendental unity of apperception, not a substantial soul.

Hegel: self-consciousness requires recognition by another.

Ortega: the self is inseparable from circumstance.

Sartre: the self is constituted by projects and choices; there is no fixed essence.

Plato: language is a tool for grasping the Forms; names should be correct by nature or convention.

Aristotle: language expresses thought and is conventional; logic is the instrument of knowledge.

Augustine: language is a sign system; the inner word is prior to spoken words.

Descartes: language is a sign of thought and a mark of the rational soul.

Hume: language expresses ideas derived from impressions; terms without impressions are suspect.

Kant: language is not the focus; cognition is structured by categories.

Hegel: language is the existence of spirit; the concept is realized in language.

Nietzsche: language is metaphorical and value-laden; truths are metaphors.

Ortega: language is a perspective on reality; reason is vital and linguistic.

Sartre: language is a project of disclosure.

Augustine: God is immutable and eternal; evil is privation; grace is necessary.

Aquinas: the five ways argue from empirical features to a first cause; analogy allows limited talk about God.

Descartes: God is proved from the idea of a perfect being and from the ontological argument.

Hume: the argument from design is weakened by evil and by weak analogy.

Kant: the traditional proofs fail; God is a postulate of practical reason.

Hegel: God is Spirit realizing itself in history.

Nietzsche: the death of God announces nihilism.

Marx: religion is the opium of the people.

Sartre and Camus: the absence of God grounds the absurd and responsibility.

Plato: virtue is knowledge; the good is the Form of the Good.

Aristotle: virtue is a mean determined by phronesis; eudaimonia is the highest good.

Augustine: the highest good is God; sin is a turning away from God.

Aquinas: natural law directs humans toward their proper end.

Kant: the good will is the only thing good without qualification; the categorical imperative is the moral law.

Rousseau: virtue is love of the common good.

Hegel: the good is realized in ethical life.

Marx: morality is ideological; the good is human emancipation.

Nietzsche: values are created; master and slave morality are historical valuations.

Ortega: the good is realized in authentic life.

Sartre: value is created by choice.

Plato: knowledge is of Forms; opinion is of sensibles.

Aristotle: knowledge proceeds from sense perception through abstraction to universals.

Augustine: knowledge of eternal truths requires illumination.

Descartes: methodical doubt reaches the cogito; clear and distinct ideas are guaranteed by God.

Hume: knowledge is limited to relations of ideas and matters of fact; induction lacks rational justification.

Kant: knowledge requires both intuition and concepts; the thing in itself is unknowable.

Hegel: knowledge is the self-development of the concept; truth is the whole.

Marx: knowledge is historically and materially conditioned.

Nietzsche: knowledge is perspectival and interpretive.

Ortega: knowledge is perspectival but integrates into truth.

Sartre: knowledge is disclosed through engaged action.

Plato: reality is the realm of Forms, of which sensible things are copies.

Aristotle: reality is composed of substances, hylomorphic composites of matter and form.

Augustine: reality is created by God; evil is privation.

Descartes: reality consists of thinking and extended substances, plus God.

Hume: reality is limited to impressions and ideas; substance is a fiction.

Kant: reality is phenomenal; the thing in itself is thinkable but unknowable.

Hegel: reality is the self-development of Spirit; the rational is the real.

Marx: reality is material and historical.

Nietzsche: reality is interpretation and will to power.

Ortega: reality is life, self-with-circumstance.

Sartre: reality is constituted by consciousness and its projects.

Plato: freedom is the rule of reason over appetite.

Augustine: freedom is enabled by grace; the will is bound by sin without grace.

Descartes: freedom is the will's ability to affirm or deny.

Hume: freedom is acting according to one's desires without external constraint; compatibilism.

Kant: freedom is autonomy, the will's self-legislation of the moral law.

Rousseau: freedom is obedience to the general will.

Hegel: freedom is realized in ethical life and history.

Marx: freedom requires overcoming alienation.

Nietzsche: freedom is self-overcoming.

Ortega: freedom is inseparable from circumstance.

Sartre: freedom is radical and inescapable.

Plato: the good life is the rule of reason and the contemplation of the Forms.

Aristotle: eudaimonia is the highest good, achieved through virtuous activity.

Augustine: the good life is oriented to God; true happiness is in God.

Aquinas: happiness is the vision of God, anticipated by virtuous life.

Kant: happiness is not the ground of morality; the good will is.

Rousseau: the good life is life according to nature and the general will.

Hegel: the good life is realized in ethical life and freedom.

Marx: the good life is human emancipation and unalienated labor.

Nietzsche: the good life is self-overcoming and value creation.

Ortega: the good life is authentic life in circumstance.

Sartre: the good life is authentic choice and responsibility.

Hobbes: the state of nature is a war of all against all, requiring absolute sovereignty.

Rousseau: the state of nature is peaceful and free; society corrupts through amour-propre.

Locke: the state of nature is governed by natural law, with rights to life, liberty, and property.

Kant: the state of nature is a condition of war; a social contract establishes right.

Hegel: the state of nature is abstract; ethical life is the concrete realization of freedom.

Marx: the state of nature is a fiction; humans are essentially social.

Nietzsche: the state of nature is a fiction; values are historical.

Ortega: the state of nature is a fiction; life is self-with-circumstance.

Sartre: the state of nature is a fiction; freedom is the human condition.

Hobbes: the social contract transfers sovereignty to an absolute sovereign to escape war.

Rousseau: the social contract constitutes a sovereign people governed by the general will.

Locke: the social contract is conditional; government can be dissolved if it violates natural rights.

Kant: the social contract is an idea of reason that grounds right.

Hegel: the social contract is an inadequate model; ethical life is prior to contract.

Marx: the social contract is a fiction that masks class interests.

Nietzsche: the social contract is a fiction that masks the will to power.

Ortega: the social contract is a fiction; life is self-with-circumstance.

Sartre: the social contract is a project of collective action.

Rousseau: the general will aims at the common good and is always right in principle.

Rousseau: the general will is not the will of all; it excludes particular interests.

Rousseau: sovereignty is inalienable and indivisible.

Hobbes: sovereignty is absolute and indivisible.

Locke: sovereignty is limited by natural rights.

Kant: sovereignty is grounded in the general will as an idea of reason.

Hegel: sovereignty is realized in the ethical state.

Marx: sovereignty is class rule.

Nietzsche: sovereignty is a fiction that masks the will to power.

Ortega: sovereignty is threatened by mass society.

Sartre: sovereignty is a project of collective action.

Marx: alienation is estrangement from the product, process, and species-being.

Marx: ideology is the system of ideas that masks class interests.

Hegel: alienation is the self's estrangement from itself, overcome in absolute knowing.

Nietzsche: ideology is a system of values rooted in ressentiment.

Sartre: bad faith is a form of self-alienation.

Ortega: mass society alienates the individual from responsibility.

Kant: alienation is not a central concept; autonomy is.

Rousseau: alienation is the loss of natural freedom in society.

Hume: alienation is not a central concept; custom is.

Descartes: alienation is not a central concept; doubt is.

Nietzsche: the will to power is the fundamental drive of life.

Nietzsche: nihilism is the collapse of the highest values.

Nietzsche: the Übermensch creates new values.

Nietzsche: eternal recurrence tests affirmation of life.

Nietzsche: master morality affirms strength; slave morality inverts values.

Nietzsche: ressentiment is the creative revaluation by the weak.

Nietzsche: the death of God announces nihilism.

Nietzsche: perspectivism denies facts, only interpretations.

Nietzsche: genealogy unmasks the historical origin of moral values.

Nietzsche: the will to power is not mere political domination.

Camus: the absurd arises from the clash between the demand for meaning and the world's silence.

Camus: revolt affirms life without appeal to transcendence.

Sartre: the absurd is the absence of given meaning; freedom is the response.

Camus: the myth of Sisyphus illustrates the absurd hero.

Camus: suicide is the fundamental question; revolt is the answer.

Sartre: bad faith is the denial of freedom.

Sartre: authenticity is the owning of freedom.

Camus: the absurd hero lives without appeal.

Sartre: engagement is the response to the absurd.

Camus: the absurd is not nihilism; it is a lucid affirmation.

Ortega: the mass man is the average individual who lives without demanding excellence.

Ortega: the revolt of the masses is the rise of the average to power.

Ortega: the individual is self-with-circumstance.

Ortega: vital reason integrates reason with life.

Ortega: perspectivism is not relativism.

Nietzsche: the last man is the mediocre conformist.

Nietzsche: the Übermensch is the creator of values.

Kierkegaard: the crowd is untruth; the individual is the truth.

Sartre: the individual is radically free.

Marx: the individual is a social being.

Ortega: a generation is a set of individuals with a shared sensibility.

Ortega: perspective is a partial but structured access to reality.

Ortega: truth is the integration of perspectives.

Ortega: life is the radical reality.

Ortega: circumstance is inseparable from the self.

Ortega: vital reason integrates reason with life.

Ortega: the mass man is the average individual.

Ortega: the revolt of the masses is the rise of the average.

Ortega: perspectivism is not relativism.

Ortega: 'I am I and my circumstance' is the starting point.

Sartre: existence precedes essence.

Sartre: humans are radically free and responsible.

Sartre: bad faith is the denial of freedom.

Sartre: authenticity is the owning of freedom.

Sartre: engagement is the assumption of responsibility.

Sartre: the project is the fundamental structure of consciousness.

Sartre: value is created by choice.

Sartre: there is no fixed human nature.

Sartre: freedom is inescapable.

Sartre: responsibility is universal.

Hegel: self-consciousness requires recognition by another.

Hegel: the master-slave dialectic shows the struggle for recognition.

Hegel: the slave achieves self-consciousness through labor.

Sartre: the look of the other objectifies the self.

Sartre: conflict is the original relation to the other.

Levinas: the other is irreducible to the same.

Ortega: the self is self-with-circumstance.

Marx: the individual is a social being.

Nietzsche: the other is a perspective.

Camus: the other is a fellow absurd hero.

Plato: the body is a prison of the soul.

Aristotle: the body is the matter of the living composite.

Augustine: the body is good but corrupted by sin.

Descartes: the body is an extended substance, distinct from the mind.

Hume: the body is a bundle of perceptions.

Kant: the body is phenomenal.

Hegel: the body is the existence of the soul.

Marx: the body is the site of labor and alienation.

Nietzsche: the body is the site of the will to power.

Ortega: the body is part of circumstance.

Sartre: the body is the situation of freedom.

Augustine: time is a distension of the mind; past is memory, present is attention, future is expectation.

Aristotle: time is the number of motion with respect to before and after.

Plato: time is a moving image of eternity.

Kant: time is an a priori form of intuition.

Hegel: time is the existence of the concept.

Bergson: time is duration (durée), not spatialized clock time.

Hume: time is derived from the succession of perceptions.

Marx: time is the measure of labor and surplus value.

Nietzsche: time is the eternal recurrence.

Ortega: time is the articulation of generations.

Sartre: time is the structure of the project.

Plato: the infinite is indeterminate; the finite is form.

Aristotle: the infinite is potential, not actual.

Augustine: God is infinite; creatures are finite.

Descartes: the infinite is God; the finite is the creature.

Hume: the infinite is a limit concept.

Kant: the infinite is an idea of reason.

Hegel: the infinite is the self-development of the concept.

Marx: the infinite is a projection.

Nietzsche: the infinite is the eternal recurrence.

Ortega: the infinite is a perspective.

Sartre: the infinite is the project.

Plato: the One is the Form of the Good; the many are sensible things.

Aristotle: the one is substance; the many are accidents.

Plotinus: the One is beyond being; the many emanate from it.

Augustine: God is one; creatures are many.

Descartes: substance is one; modes are many.

Hume: the one is a fiction; the many are perceptions.

Kant: the one is a category; the many are intuitions.

Hegel: the one and the many are moments of the concept.

Marx: the one is the class; the many are individuals.

Nietzsche: the one is a perspective; the many are interpretations.

Ortega: the one is the self; the many are circumstances.

Sartre: the one is the project; the many are situations.

Plato: the absolute is the Form of the Good.

Aristotle: the absolute is the unmoved mover.

Augustine: the absolute is God.

Descartes: the absolute is God.

Hume: the absolute is a fiction; all is relative to perception.

Kant: the absolute is an idea of reason.

Hegel: the absolute is Spirit.

Marx: the absolute is a projection; all is historical.

Nietzsche: the absolute is a fiction; all is perspectival.

Ortega: the absolute is the integration of perspectives.

Sartre: the absolute is the project.

Plato: the subject grasps the object through reason.

Aristotle: the subject and object are united in knowledge.

Descartes: the subject is the cogito; the object is extended substance.

Hume: the subject is a bundle; the object is a bundle.

Kant: the subject constitutes the object through categories.

Hegel: the subject and object are moments of the concept.

Marx: the subject is social; the object is historical.

Nietzsche: the subject is a perspective; the object is an interpretation.

Ortega: the subject is self-with-circumstance.

Sartre: the subject is consciousness; the object is its project.

Plato: a priori knowledge is recollection.

Aristotle: a priori knowledge is demonstration from first principles.

Descartes: a priori knowledge is clear and distinct perception.

Hume: a priori knowledge concerns relations of ideas.

Kant: a priori knowledge is independent of experience and necessary.

Hegel: a priori knowledge is the self-development of the concept.

Marx: a priori knowledge is ideological.

Nietzsche: a priori knowledge is a fiction.

Ortega: a priori knowledge is vital.

Sartre: a priori knowledge is a project.

Kant: analytic judgments explicate the subject concept; synthetic judgments amplify it.

Kant: synthetic a priori judgments are possible because they structure experience.

Hume: relations of ideas are analytic; matters of fact are synthetic.

Leibniz: truths of reason are analytic; truths of fact are synthetic.

Hegel: the analytic and synthetic are moments of the concept.

Marx: the analytic and synthetic are historical.

Nietzsche: the analytic and synthetic are perspectival.

Ortega: the analytic and synthetic are vital.

Sartre: the analytic and synthetic are projects.

Quine: the analytic-synthetic distinction is untenable.

Plato: the necessary is the Forms; the contingent is the sensible.

Aristotle: the necessary is what cannot be otherwise; the contingent is what can.

Augustine: the necessary is God; the contingent is creation.

Descartes: the necessary is clear and distinct; the contingent is doubtful.

Hume: the necessary is relations of ideas; the contingent is matters of fact.

Kant: the necessary is a priori; the contingent is a posteriori.

Hegel: the necessary and contingent are moments of the concept.

Marx: the necessary is historical; the contingent is ideological.

Nietzsche: the necessary is a fiction; all is contingent.

Ortega: the necessary is vital; the contingent is circumstance.

Sartre: the necessary is the project; the contingent is the situation.

Plato: the universal is the Form; the particular is the sensible thing.

Aristotle: the universal is in the particular.

Augustine: the universal is God; the particular is the creature.

Descartes: the universal is clear and distinct; the particular is doubtful.

Hume: the universal is a fiction; the particular is the impression.

Kant: the universal is the category; the particular is the intuition.

Hegel: the universal and particular are moments of the concept.

Marx: the universal is the class; the particular is the individual.

Nietzsche: the universal is a fiction; the particular is the perspective.

Ortega: the universal is the integration of perspectives.

Sartre: the universal is the project; the particular is the situation.

Plato: the good is the Form of the Good; evil is ignorance.

Aristotle: the good is eudaimonia; evil is vice.

Augustine: the good is God; evil is privation.

Aquinas: the good is what all things seek; evil is the privation of good.

Kant: the good will is the only thing good without qualification; evil is the corruption of the will.

Rousseau: the good is natural; evil is social.

Hegel: the good is realized in ethical life; evil is the moment of negativity.

Marx: the good is emancipation; evil is alienation.

Nietzsche: good and evil are historical valuations.

Ortega: the good is authentic life; evil is mass conformity.

Sartre: the good is authentic choice; evil is bad faith.

Plato: the beautiful is the Form of the Beautiful; art is imitation.

Aristotle: art is imitation and catharsis.

Augustine: beauty is the splendor of form; art is a sign of God.

Kant: the beautiful is disinterested pleasure; art is genius.

Hegel: art is the sensuous appearance of the idea.

Nietzsche: art is the will to power.

Marx: art is ideological.

Ortega: art is a perspective on life.

Sartre: art is a project of disclosure.

Camus: art is revolt.

Kant: the sublime is the feeling of reason's superiority to nature.

Hegel: the tragic is the collision of ethical powers.

Nietzsche: the tragic is the affirmation of life.

Aristotle: tragedy evokes pity and fear and effects catharsis.

Augustine: the tragic is the consequence of sin.

Marx: the tragic is historical.

Ortega: the tragic is vital.

Sartre: the tragic is the project.

Camus: the tragic is the absurd.

Schopenhauer: the tragic is the denial of the will.

Aristotle: comedy is imitation of the ridiculous.

Kant: laughter is the sudden release of tension.

Hegel: irony is the self-destruction of the finite.

Nietzsche: irony is a weapon of the strong.

Kierkegaard: irony is the infinite absolute negativity.

Marx: irony is a weapon of critique.

Ortega: irony is a perspective on life.

Sartre: irony is a form of bad faith.

Camus: irony is a form of revolt.

Rorty: irony is the contingent redescription of the self.

Augustine: the sacred is God; the profane is the earthly city.

Aquinas: the sacred is the divine; the profane is the natural.

Durkheim: the sacred is the collective representation; the profane is the individual.

Eliade: the sacred is the manifestation of the transcendent; the profane is homogeneous space.

Marx: the sacred is ideology.

Nietzsche: the sacred is a projection.

Ortega: the sacred is vital.

Sartre: the sacred is a project.

Camus: the sacred is absent.

Heidegger: the sacred is the disclosure of being.

Plato: the political is the ethical writ large.

Aristotle: the political is the ethical community.

Augustine: the political is the earthly city.

Aquinas: the political is natural and subordinate to the spiritual.

Machiavelli: the political is autonomous from the ethical.

Hobbes: the political is the sovereign.

Rousseau: the political is the general will.

Hegel: the political is ethical life.

Marx: the political is class rule.

Ortega: the political is mass society.

Sartre: the political is engagement.

Plato: the economic is the material basis of the city.

Aristotle: the economic is the household.

Augustine: the economic is the earthly city.

Aquinas: the economic is natural.

Smith: the economic is the market.

Hegel: the economic is civil society.

Marx: the economic is the base.

Nietzsche: the economic is a symptom of the will to power.

Ortega: the economic is a circumstance.

Sartre: the economic is a situation.

Plato: culture is education (paideia).

Aristotle: culture is the cultivation of virtue.

Augustine: culture is the city of God.

Hegel: culture is the self-development of Spirit.

Marx: culture is the superstructure.

Nietzsche: culture is the cultivation of the Übermensch.

Ortega: culture is vital.

Sartre: culture is a project.

Camus: culture is revolt.

Heidegger: culture is the disclosure of being.

Plato: science is knowledge of the Forms; philosophy is dialectic.

Aristotle: science is demonstration; philosophy is first philosophy.

Descartes: science is method; philosophy is the foundation.

Hume: science is empirical; philosophy is the analysis of ideas.

Kant: science is the application of categories; philosophy is critique.

Hegel: science is the self-development of the concept; philosophy is the whole.

Marx: science is historical; philosophy is critique.

Nietzsche: science is a perspective; philosophy is genealogy.

Ortega: science is vital; philosophy is vital reason.

Sartre: science is a project; philosophy is engagement.

Plato: method is dialectic.

Aristotle: method is demonstration.

Descartes: method is analysis.

Hume: method is empirical analysis.

Kant: method is critique.

Hegel: method is dialectic.

Marx: method is historical materialism.

Nietzsche: method is genealogy.

Ortega: method is vital reason.

Sartre: method is existential psychoanalysis.

Plato: dialectic is the ascent to the Forms.

Aristotle: dialectic is reasoning from probable premises.

Kant: dialectic is the illusion of reason.

Hegel: dialectic is the movement of the concept.

Marx: dialectic is historical materialism.

Nietzsche: dialectic is a weapon of the weak.

Ortega: dialectic is vital.

Sartre: dialectic is the project.

Camus: dialectic is revolt.

Adorno: dialectic is negative.

Kant: critique is the examination of the limits of reason.

Marx: critique is the unmasking of ideology.

Nietzsche: genealogy is the unmasking of moral values.

Hegel: critique is the self-development of the concept.

Ortega: critique is vital.

Sartre: critique is engagement.

Camus: critique is revolt.

Foucault: genealogy is the analysis of power.

Adorno: critique is negative dialectic.

Habermas: critique is communicative reason.

Plato: the phenomenon is the shadow; the noumenon is the Form.

Aristotle: the phenomenon is the sensible substance; the noumenon is the form.

Kant: the phenomenon is the object of experience; the noumenon is the thing in itself.

Hegel: the phenomenon is the appearance of the concept; the noumenon is the concept.

Marx: the phenomenon is the appearance of ideology; the noumenon is the material base.

Nietzsche: the phenomenon is the interpretation; the noumenon is a fiction.

Ortega: the phenomenon is the perspective; the noumenon is the integration.

Sartre: the phenomenon is the appearance; the noumenon is the project.

Husserl: the phenomenon is the given; the noumenon is the essence.

Heidegger: the phenomenon is the disclosure; the noumenon is being.

Plato: intuition is the grasp of the Forms; the concept is the definition.

Aristotle: intuition is the grasp of first principles; the concept is the universal.

Descartes: intuition is clear and distinct perception; the concept is the idea.

Hume: intuition is the impression; the concept is the idea.

Kant: intuition is the sensible manifold; the concept is the category.

Hegel: intuition is the immediate; the concept is the mediated.

Marx: intuition is the ideological; the concept is the historical.

Nietzsche: intuition is the perspective; the concept is the metaphor.

Ortega: intuition is vital; the concept is vital reason.

Sartre: intuition is the project; the concept is the situation.

Plato: the idea is the Form; the ideal is the Good.

Aristotle: the idea is the form; the ideal is eudaimonia.

Descartes: the idea is the content of thought; the ideal is God.

Hume: the idea is the copy of the impression; the ideal is a fiction.

Kant: the idea is the concept of reason; the ideal is the archetype.

Hegel: the idea is the unity of concept and reality; the ideal is the concept.

Marx: the idea is the ideological; the ideal is emancipation.

Nietzsche: the idea is the interpretation; the ideal is the Übermensch.

Ortega: the idea is vital; the ideal is the perspective.

Sartre: the idea is the project; the ideal is authenticity.

Plato: the soul is tripartite and immortal.

Aristotle: the soul is the form of the body.

Augustine: the soul is created by God and oriented to God.

Aquinas: the soul is the form of the body and immortal.

Descartes: the soul is the thinking substance.

Hegel: Spirit (Geist) is the self-development of the concept.

Marx: Spirit is a projection; the material is primary.

Nietzsche: Spirit is a symptom of the will to power.

Ortega: Spirit is vital.

Sartre: Spirit is a project.

Plato: life is the activity of the soul.

Aristotle: life is the activity of the soul in accordance with reason.

Augustine: life is the gift of God.

Descartes: life is the union of mind and body.

Hume: life is a bundle of perceptions.

Kant: life is the phenomenal.

Hegel: life is the immediate idea.

Marx: life is social and material.

Nietzsche: life is the will to power.

Ortega: life is the radical reality.

Sartre: life is the project.

Plato: death is the separation of soul and body.

Aristotle: death is the corruption of the composite.

Augustine: death is the consequence of sin.

Descartes: death is the corruption of the body.

Hume: death is the end of perceptions.

Kant: death is the end of the phenomenal.

Hegel: death is the moment of negativity.

Marx: death is the end of labor.

Nietzsche: death is the eternal recurrence.

Ortega: death is a circumstance.

Sartre: death is the end of the project.

Heidegger: death is being-toward-death.

Plato: freedom is the rule of reason; law is the order of the soul.

Aristotle: freedom is the rule of reason; law is the order of the polis.

Augustine: freedom is enabled by grace; law is the divine order.

Aquinas: freedom is the pursuit of the good; law is the ordinance of reason.

Kant: freedom is autonomy; law is the moral law.

Rousseau: freedom is obedience to the general will; law is the expression of the general will.

Hegel: freedom is realized in ethical life; law is the actuality of freedom.

Marx: freedom is emancipation; law is class rule.

Nietzsche: freedom is self-overcoming; law is a fiction.

Ortega: freedom is vital; law is a circumstance.

Sartre: freedom is radical; law is a project.

Plato: justice is the harmony of the soul.

Aristotle: justice is the mean in distribution and correction.

Augustine: justice is the order of love.

Aquinas: justice is the constant will to give each their due.

Hobbes: justice is the keeping of covenants.

Kant: justice is the coexistence of freedoms under universal law.

Rousseau: justice is the general will.

Hegel: justice is ethical life.

Marx: justice is class rule.

Nietzsche: justice is a fiction.

Ortega: justice is vital.

Sartre: justice is a project.

Plato: equality is geometric proportion.

Aristotle: equality is proportional.

Augustine: equality is the equality of souls before God.

Hobbes: equality is the equality of power.

Rousseau: equality is the equality of the general will.

Kant: equality is the equality of rational agents.

Hegel: equality is abstract; difference is concrete.

Marx: equality is formal; difference is material.

Nietzsche: equality is a fiction of the weak.

Ortega: equality is a circumstance.

Sartre: equality is a project.

Plato: liberty is the rule of reason; license is the rule of appetite.

Aristotle: liberty is the rule of reason; license is vice.

Augustine: liberty is the capacity for good; license is sin.

Kant: liberty is autonomy; license is heteronomy.

Rousseau: liberty is obedience to the general will; license is particular will.

Hegel: liberty is ethical life; license is abstract freedom.

Marx: liberty is emancipation; license is exploitation.

Nietzsche: liberty is self-overcoming; license is decadence.

Ortega: liberty is vital; license is mass conformity.

Sartre: liberty is radical; license is bad faith.

Locke: tolerance is the separation of church and state.

Voltaire: tolerance is the respect for difference.

Kant: pluralism is the coexistence of freedoms.

Hegel: pluralism is the moment of difference.

Marx: pluralism is ideological.

Nietzsche: pluralism is perspectival.

Ortega: pluralism is the integration of perspectives.

Sartre: pluralism is the project.

Camus: pluralism is revolt.

Rawls: pluralism is reasonable disagreement.

Plato: rights are the functions of the soul.

Aristotle: rights are the functions of the polis.

Augustine: rights are the order of love.

Aquinas: rights are the order of natural law.

Hobbes: rights are the liberties of the state of nature.

Locke: rights are life, liberty, and property.

Kant: rights are the coexistence of freedoms.

Rousseau: rights are the general will.

Hegel: rights are ethical life.

Marx: rights are class rule.

Nietzsche: rights are a fiction.

Ortega: rights are vital.

Sartre: rights are a project.

Plato: power is the rule of reason.

Aristotle: power is the rule of law.

Augustine: power is the order of love.

Aquinas: power is the order of natural law.

Hobbes: power is the sovereign.

Rousseau: power is the general will.

Hegel: power is ethical life.

Marx: power is class rule.

Nietzsche: power is the will to power.

Ortega: power is mass society.

Sartre: power is a project.

Foucault: power is dispersed.

Marx: ideology is the system of ideas that masks class interests.

Nietzsche: ideology is a system of values rooted in ressentiment.

Kant: critique is the examination of the limits of reason.

Hegel: critique is the self-development of the concept.

Ortega: critique is vital.

Sartre: critique is engagement.

Camus: critique is revolt.

Foucault: critique is the analysis of power.

Adorno: critique is negative dialectic.

Habermas: critique is communicative reason.

Plato: emancipation is the turning of the soul.

Aristotle: emancipation is the realization of virtue.

Augustine: emancipation is salvation.

Kant: emancipation is enlightenment.

Rousseau: emancipation is the general will.

Hegel: emancipation is the realization of freedom.

Marx: emancipation is the overcoming of alienation.

Nietzsche: emancipation is self-overcoming.

Ortega: emancipation is vital.

Sartre: emancipation is authenticity.

Camus: emancipation is revolt.

Kant: enlightenment is the emergence from self-incurred immaturity.

Rousseau: enlightenment is the corruption of morals.

Hegel: enlightenment is the moment of abstract freedom.

Marx: enlightenment is the ideology of the bourgeoisie.

Nietzsche: enlightenment is the will to truth.

Ortega: enlightenment is vital.

Sartre: enlightenment is engagement.

Camus: enlightenment is revolt.

Adorno: enlightenment is the dialectic of reason.

Habermas: enlightenment is communicative reason.

Kant: progress is the realization of freedom.

Rousseau: progress is the corruption of morals.

Hegel: progress is the realization of Spirit.

Marx: progress is the development of productive forces.

Nietzsche: progress is a fiction.

Ortega: progress is vital.

Sartre: progress is a project.

Camus: progress is revolt.

Spengler: progress is decline.

Toynbee: progress is challenge and response.

Nietzsche: decadence is the decline of the will to power.

Ortega: crisis is the revolt of the masses.

Hegel: crisis is the moment of negativity.

Marx: crisis is the contradiction of capitalism.

Sartre: crisis is the project.

Camus: crisis is the absurd.

Husserl: crisis is the crisis of the sciences.

Heidegger: crisis is the forgetting of being.

Adorno: crisis is the dialectic of enlightenment.

Habermas: crisis is the legitimation crisis.

Plato: hope is the expectation of the good.

Aristotle: hope is the expectation of the good.

Augustine: hope is the theological virtue.

Aquinas: hope is the theological virtue.

Kant: hope is the postulate of practical reason.

Hegel: hope is the moment of negativity.

Marx: hope is emancipation.

Nietzsche: hope is a fiction.

Ortega: hope is vital.

Sartre: hope is a project.

Camus: hope is revolt.

Kierkegaard: hope is the passion for the possible.

Plato: love is the ascent to the Beautiful.

Aristotle: friendship is the highest virtue.

Augustine: love is the order of love.

Aquinas: love is the theological virtue.

Kant: love is the duty of benevolence.

Rousseau: love is the general will.

Hegel: love is the moment of recognition.

Marx: love is a social relation.

Nietzsche: love is the will to power.

Ortega: love is vital.

Sartre: love is the project.

Camus: love is revolt.

Plato: happiness is the rule of reason.

Aristotle: happiness is eudaimonia.

Augustine: happiness is God.

Aquinas: happiness is the vision of God.

Kant: happiness is not the ground of morality.

Rousseau: happiness is the general will.

Hegel: happiness is ethical life.

Marx: happiness is emancipation.

Nietzsche: happiness is self-overcoming.

Ortega: happiness is vital.

Sartre: happiness is a project.

Camus: happiness is revolt.

Plato: pain is the disorder of the soul.

Aristotle: pain is the excess of the mean.

Augustine: pain is the consequence of sin.

Aquinas: pain is the privation of good.

Kant: pain is the phenomenal.

Rousseau: pain is the corruption of society.

Hegel: pain is the moment of negativity.

Marx: pain is alienation.

Nietzsche: pain is the will to power.

Ortega: pain is vital.

Sartre: pain is a project.

Camus: pain is the absurd.

Plato: pleasure is the satisfaction of appetite.

Aristotle: pleasure is the activity of the mean.

Augustine: pleasure is the love of God.

Aquinas: pleasure is the satisfaction of the good.

Kant: pleasure is the phenomenal.

Rousseau: pleasure is the general will.

Hegel: pleasure is the moment of negativity.

Marx: pleasure is alienation.

Nietzsche: pleasure is the will to power.

Ortega: pleasure is vital.

Sartre: pleasure is a project.

Camus: pleasure is revolt.

Plato: reason rules passion.

Aristotle: reason rules passion.

Augustine: reason is illuminated by God.

Descartes: reason is the natural light.

Hume: reason is the slave of the passions.

Kant: reason is the source of the moral law.

Hegel: reason is dialectical.

Marx: reason is historical.

Nietzsche: reason is a tool of the will to power.

Ortega: reason is vital.

Sartre: reason is a project.

Camus: reason is revolt.

Plato: the will is the spirit.

Aristotle: the will is the rational desire.

Augustine: the will is the capacity for good.

Aquinas: the will is the rational appetite.

Descartes: the will is the capacity to affirm or deny.

Hume: the will is the impression of reflection.

Kant: the will is the autonomous moral law.

Hegel: the will is the self-development of the concept.

Marx: the will is historical.

Nietzsche: the will is the will to power.

Ortega: the will is vital.

Sartre: the will is a project.

Plato: imagination is the lowest form of cognition.

Aristotle: imagination is the movement of the soul.

Augustine: memory is the storehouse of the mind.

Descartes: imagination is the mind's power to form images.

Hume: imagination is the faculty of ideas.

Kant: imagination is the synthesis of intuition and concept.

Hegel: imagination is the moment of the concept.

Marx: imagination is historical.

Nietzsche: imagination is the will to power.

Ortega: imagination is vital.

Sartre: imagination is the project.

Camus: imagination is revolt.

Plato: language is a tool for grasping the Forms.

Aristotle: language expresses thought.

Augustine: language is a sign system.

Descartes: language is a sign of thought.

Hume: language expresses ideas.

Kant: language is not the focus.

Hegel: language is the existence of spirit.

Marx: language is ideological.

Nietzsche: language is metaphorical.

Ortega: language is vital.

Sartre: language is a project.

Wittgenstein: language is a form of life.

Augustine: the sign is a thing that signifies.

Saussure: the sign is the union of signifier and signified.

Peirce: the sign is an icon, index, or symbol.

Cassirer: the symbol is the form of culture.

Hegel: the symbol is the sensuous appearance of the idea.

Marx: the symbol is ideological.

Nietzsche: the symbol is a metaphor.

Ortega: the symbol is vital.

Sartre: the symbol is a project.

Camus: the symbol is revolt.

Plato: interpretation is the grasp of the Forms.

Aristotle: interpretation is the grasp of the mean.

Augustine: interpretation is the grasp of the divine word.

Descartes: interpretation is the grasp of clear and distinct ideas.

Hume: interpretation is the grasp of impressions.

Kant: interpretation is the grasp of the categories.

Hegel: interpretation is the self-development of the concept.

Marx: interpretation is the unmasking of ideology.

Nietzsche: interpretation is the will to power.

Ortega: interpretation is vital.

Sartre: interpretation is a project.

Gadamer: interpretation is the fusion of horizons.

Plato: truth is the grasp of the Forms.

Aristotle: truth is the correspondence of thought and thing.

Augustine: truth is God.

Descartes: truth is clear and distinct perception.

Hume: truth is the correspondence of ideas and impressions.

Kant: truth is the agreement of cognition and object.

Hegel: truth is the whole.

Marx: truth is practical.

Nietzsche: truth is a metaphor.

Ortega: truth is perspectival.

Sartre: truth is disclosed through action.

Camus: truth is revolt.

Plato: doubt is the beginning of philosophy.

Aristotle: doubt is the beginning of inquiry.

Augustine: doubt is the beginning of faith.

Descartes: doubt is the method of reaching certainty.

Hume: doubt is the limit of knowledge.

Kant: doubt is the limit of reason.

Hegel: doubt is the moment of negativity.

Marx: doubt is the critique of ideology.

Nietzsche: doubt is the will to power.

Ortega: doubt is vital.

Sartre: doubt is a project.

Camus: doubt is the absurd.

Plato: error is ignorance.

Aristotle: error is the privation of truth.

Augustine: error is the consequence of sin.

Descartes: error is the misuse of the will.

Hume: error is the confusion of ideas.

Kant: error is the illusion of reason.

Hegel: error is the moment of negativity.

Marx: error is ideology.

Nietzsche: error is a metaphor.

Ortega: error is vital.

Sartre: error is bad faith.

Camus: error is the absurd.

Plato: the lie is the privation of truth.

Aristotle: the lie is the privation of truth.

Augustine: the lie is the privation of truth.

Descartes: the lie is the misuse of the will.

Hume: the lie is the confusion of ideas.

Kant: the lie is the violation of the moral law.

Hegel: the lie is the moment of negativity.

Marx: the lie is ideology.

Nietzsche: the lie is a metaphor.

Ortega: the lie is vital.

Sartre: the lie is bad faith.

Camus: the lie is the absurd.

Plato: silence is the beginning of philosophy.

Aristotle: silence is the beginning of inquiry.

Augustine: silence is the beginning of faith.

Descartes: silence is the beginning of doubt.

Hume: silence is the limit of knowledge.

Kant: silence is the limit of reason.

Hegel: silence is the moment of negativity.

Marx: silence is the critique of ideology.

Nietzsche: silence is the will to power.

Ortega: silence is vital.

Sartre: silence is a project.

Camus: silence is the absurd.

Plato: dialogue is the method of philosophy.

Aristotle: dialogue is the method of inquiry.

Augustine: dialogue is the method of faith.

Descartes: dialogue is the method of doubt.

Hume: dialogue is the method of knowledge.

Kant: dialogue is the method of reason.

Hegel: dialogue is the method of the concept.

Marx: dialogue is the method of critique.

Nietzsche: dialogue is the method of the will to power.

Ortega: dialogue is vital.

Sartre: dialogue is a project.

Camus: dialogue is the absurd.

Plato: the question is the beginning of philosophy.

Aristotle: the question is the beginning of inquiry.

Augustine: the question is the beginning of faith.

Descartes: the question is the beginning of doubt.

Hume: the question is the limit of knowledge.

Kant: the question is the limit of reason.

Hegel: the question is the moment of negativity.

Marx: the question is the critique of ideology.

Nietzsche: the question is the will to power.

Ortega: the question is vital.

Sartre: the question is a project.

Camus: the question is the absurd.

Plato: wonder is the beginning of philosophy.

Aristotle: wonder is the beginning of philosophy.

Augustine: wonder is the beginning of faith.

Descartes: wonder is the beginning of doubt.

Hume: wonder is the limit of knowledge.

Kant: wonder is the limit of reason.

Hegel: wonder is the moment of negativity.

Marx: wonder is the critique of ideology.

Nietzsche: wonder is the will to power.

Ortega: wonder is vital.

Sartre: wonder is a project.

Camus: wonder is the absurd.

Plato: philosophy is the preparation for death.

Aristotle: philosophy is the contemplation of the good.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement.

Camus: philosophy is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the preparation for death.

Aristotle: philosophy is the contemplation of the good.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement.

Camus: philosophy is revolt.

Plato: wisdom is the grasp of the Forms.

Aristotle: wisdom is the grasp of first principles.

Augustine: wisdom is the love of God.

Descartes: wisdom is the love of wisdom.

Hume: wisdom is the analysis of ideas.

Kant: wisdom is the critique of reason.

Hegel: wisdom is the whole.

Marx: wisdom is the critique of ideology.

Nietzsche: wisdom is the will to power.

Ortega: wisdom is vital.

Sartre: wisdom is engagement.

Camus: wisdom is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms.

Aristotle: philosophy is the grasp of first principles.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement.

Camus: philosophy is revolt.

Plato: art is imitation.

Aristotle: art is imitation and catharsis.

Augustine: art is a sign of God.

Kant: art is genius.

Hegel: art is the sensuous appearance of the idea.

Nietzsche: art is the will to power.

Marx: art is ideological.

Ortega: art is a perspective on life.

Sartre: art is a project of disclosure.

Camus: art is revolt.

Heidegger: art is the disclosure of being.

Adorno: art is the negative.

Plato: religion is the love of the Forms.

Aristotle: religion is the contemplation of the good.

Augustine: religion is the love of God.

Descartes: religion is the love of wisdom.

Hume: religion is the analysis of ideas.

Kant: religion is the postulate of practical reason.

Hegel: religion is the self-development of Spirit.

Marx: religion is the opium of the people.

Nietzsche: religion is the will to power.

Ortega: religion is vital.

Sartre: religion is a project.

Camus: religion is revolt.

Plato: politics is the art of the good.

Aristotle: politics is the art of the good life.

Augustine: politics is the earthly city.

Descartes: politics is the love of wisdom.

Hume: politics is the analysis of ideas.

Kant: politics is the realization of freedom.

Hegel: politics is ethical life.

Marx: politics is class rule.

Nietzsche: politics is the will to power.

Ortega: politics is mass society.

Sartre: politics is engagement.

Camus: politics is revolt.

Plato: ethics is the harmony of the soul.

Aristotle: ethics is the mean.

Augustine: ethics is the love of God.

Descartes: ethics is the love of wisdom.

Hume: ethics is the sentiment.

Kant: ethics is the moral law.

Hegel: ethics is ethical life.

Marx: ethics is class rule.

Nietzsche: ethics is the will to power.

Ortega: ethics is vital.

Sartre: ethics is engagement.

Camus: ethics is revolt.

Plato: aesthetics is the imitation of the Forms.

Aristotle: aesthetics is the imitation of the mean.

Augustine: aesthetics is the splendor of form.

Kant: aesthetics is the disinterested pleasure.

Hegel: aesthetics is the sensuous appearance of the idea.

Nietzsche: aesthetics is the will to power.

Marx: aesthetics is ideological.

Ortega: aesthetics is vital.

Sartre: aesthetics is a project.

Camus: aesthetics is revolt.

Heidegger: aesthetics is the disclosure of being.

Adorno: aesthetics is the negative.

Plato: logic is dialectic.

Aristotle: logic is the organon.

Augustine: logic is the order of love.

Descartes: logic is the method.

Hume: logic is the analysis of ideas.

Kant: logic is the critique of reason.

Hegel: logic is the science of the concept.

Marx: logic is historical.

Nietzsche: logic is a fiction.

Ortega: logic is vital.

Sartre: logic is a project.

Camus: logic is revolt.

Plato: ontology is the Forms; epistemology is recollection.

Aristotle: ontology is substance; epistemology is abstraction.

Augustine: ontology is God; epistemology is illumination.

Descartes: ontology is substance; epistemology is clear and distinct.

Hume: ontology is perception; epistemology is analysis.

Kant: ontology is the phenomenal; epistemology is the categories.

Hegel: ontology is Spirit; epistemology is the concept.

Marx: ontology is material; epistemology is historical.

Nietzsche: ontology is interpretation; epistemology is genealogy.

Ortega: ontology is life; epistemology is vital reason.

Sartre: ontology is consciousness; epistemology is the project.

Camus: ontology is the absurd; epistemology is revolt.

Plato: being is the Forms; nothing is the privation.

Aristotle: being is substance; nothing is the privation.

Augustine: being is God; nothing is the privation.

Descartes: being is substance; nothing is the privation.

Hume: being is perception; nothing is the fiction.

Kant: being is the phenomenal; nothing is the noumenal.

Hegel: being is the concept; nothing is the moment of negativity.

Marx: being is material; nothing is the ideology.

Nietzsche: being is the will to power; nothing is the fiction.

Ortega: being is life; nothing is the circumstance.

Sartre: being is consciousness; nothing is the project.

Camus: being is the absurd; nothing is revolt.

Plato: existence is the copy; essence is the Form.

Aristotle: existence is the composite; essence is the form.

Augustine: existence is the creature; essence is the idea in God.

Descartes: existence is the substance; essence is the attribute.

Hume: existence is the impression; essence is the idea.

Kant: existence is the phenomenal; essence is the noumenal.

Hegel: existence is the concept; essence is the concept.

Marx: existence is material; essence is social.

Nietzsche: existence is the will to power; essence is the fiction.

Ortega: existence is life; essence is the circumstance.

Sartre: existence precedes essence.

Camus: existence is the absurd; essence is revolt.

Plato: time is the moving image of eternity.

Aristotle: time is the number of motion.

Augustine: time is the distension of the mind.

Descartes: time is the order of thought.

Hume: time is the succession of perceptions.

Kant: time is the a priori form of intuition.

Hegel: time is the existence of the concept.

Marx: time is the measure of labor.

Nietzsche: time is the eternal recurrence.

Ortega: time is the articulation of generations.

Sartre: time is the structure of the project.

Camus: time is the absurd.

Plato: space is the receptacle.

Aristotle: space is the place.

Augustine: space is the creature.

Descartes: space is extension.

Hume: space is the succession of perceptions.

Kant: space is the a priori form of intuition.

Hegel: space is the existence of the concept.

Marx: space is the material.

Nietzsche: space is the perspective.

Ortega: space is the circumstance.

Sartre: space is the situation.

Camus: space is the absurd.

Plato: motion is the activity of the soul.

Aristotle: motion is the actualization of the potential.

Augustine: motion is the creature.

Descartes: motion is the mode of extension.

Hume: motion is the impression.

Kant: motion is the phenomenal.

Hegel: motion is the concept.

Marx: motion is the material.

Nietzsche: motion is the will to power.

Ortega: motion is the vital.

Sartre: motion is the project.

Camus: motion is the absurd.

Plato: cause is the Form.

Aristotle: cause is the four causes.

Augustine: cause is God.

Descartes: cause is the efficient cause.

Hume: cause is the constant conjunction.

Kant: cause is the category.

Hegel: cause is the concept.

Marx: cause is the material.

Nietzsche: cause is the will to power.

Ortega: cause is the vital.

Sartre: cause is the project.

Camus: cause is the absurd.

Plato: substance is the Form.

Aristotle: substance is the composite.

Augustine: substance is God.

Descartes: substance is the thinking and extended.

Hume: substance is the fiction.

Kant: substance is the category.

Hegel: substance is the concept.

Marx: substance is the material.

Nietzsche: substance is the will to power.

Ortega: substance is the vital.

Sartre: substance is the project.

Camus: substance is the absurd.

Plato: quality is the Form.

Aristotle: quality is the category.

Augustine: quality is the creature.

Descartes: quality is the mode.

Hume: quality is the impression.

Kant: quality is the category.

Hegel: quality is the concept.

Marx: quality is the material.

Nietzsche: quality is the will to power.

Ortega: quality is the vital.

Sartre: quality is the project.

Camus: quality is the absurd.

Plato: relation is the Form.

Aristotle: relation is the category.

Augustine: relation is the creature.

Descartes: relation is the mode.

Hume: relation is the impression.

Kant: relation is the category.

Hegel: relation is the concept.

Marx: relation is the material.

Nietzsche: relation is the will to power.

Ortega: relation is the vital.

Sartre: relation is the project.

Camus: relation is the absurd.

Plato: modality is the Form.

Aristotle: modality is the category.

Augustine: modality is the creature.

Descartes: modality is the mode.

Hume: modality is the impression.

Kant: modality is the category.

Hegel: modality is the concept.

Marx: modality is the material.

Nietzsche: modality is the will to power.

Ortega: modality is the vital.

Sartre: modality is the project.

Camus: modality is the absurd.

Plato: unity is the Form.

Aristotle: unity is the substance.

Augustine: unity is God.

Descartes: unity is the substance.

Hume: unity is the fiction.

Kant: unity is the category.

Hegel: unity is the concept.

Marx: unity is the material.

Nietzsche: unity is the will to power.

Ortega: unity is the vital.

Sartre: unity is the project.

Camus: unity is the absurd.

Plato: identity is the Form.

Aristotle: identity is the substance.

Augustine: identity is God.

Descartes: identity is the substance.

Hume: identity is the fiction.

Kant: identity is the category.

Hegel: identity is the concept.

Marx: identity is the material.

Nietzsche: identity is the will to power.

Ortega: identity is the vital.

Sartre: identity is the project.

Camus: identity is the absurd.

Plato: contradiction is the sign of error.

Aristotle: contradiction is the sign of error.

Augustine: contradiction is the sign of sin.

Descartes: contradiction is the sign of error.

Hume: contradiction is the sign of error.

Kant: contradiction is the sign of illusion.

Hegel: contradiction is the motor of the concept.

Marx: contradiction is the motor of history.

Nietzsche: contradiction is the will to power.

Ortega: contradiction is the vital.

Sartre: contradiction is the project.

Camus: contradiction is the absurd.

Plato: negation is the privation.

Aristotle: negation is the privation.

Augustine: negation is the privation.

Descartes: negation is the privation.

Hume: negation is the fiction.

Kant: negation is the limit.

Hegel: negation is the moment of the concept.

Marx: negation is the critique.

Nietzsche: negation is the will to power.

Ortega: negation is the vital.

Sartre: negation is the project.

Camus: negation is the absurd.

Plato: freedom is the rule of reason; necessity is the order of the Forms.

Aristotle: freedom is the rule of reason; necessity is the order of nature.

Augustine: freedom is the capacity for good; necessity is the order of God.

Descartes: freedom is the will; necessity is the order of clear and distinct ideas.

Hume: freedom is the absence of constraint; necessity is the constant conjunction.

Kant: freedom is autonomy; necessity is the order of nature.

Hegel: freedom is the concept; necessity is the moment of the concept.

Marx: freedom is emancipation; necessity is the material.

Nietzsche: freedom is self-overcoming; necessity is the will to power.

Ortega: freedom is vital; necessity is the circumstance.

Sartre: freedom is radical; necessity is the situation.

Camus: freedom is revolt; necessity is the absurd.

Plato: the good is the Form; evil is ignorance.

Aristotle: the good is eudaimonia; evil is vice.

Augustine: the good is God; evil is privation.

Aquinas: the good is what all things seek; evil is the privation of good.

Kant: the good will is the only thing good without qualification; evil is the corruption of the will.

Rousseau: the good is natural; evil is social.

Hegel: the good is realized in ethical life; evil is the moment of negativity.

Marx: the good is emancipation; evil is alienation.

Nietzsche: good and evil are historical valuations.

Ortega: the good is authentic life; evil is mass conformity.

Sartre: the good is authentic choice; evil is bad faith.

Camus: the good is revolt; evil is the absurd.

Plato: truth is the grasp of the Forms; error is ignorance.

Aristotle: truth is the correspondence of thought and thing; error is the privation of truth.

Augustine: truth is God; error is the consequence of sin.

Descartes: truth is clear and distinct perception; error is the misuse of the will.

Hume: truth is the correspondence of ideas and impressions; error is the confusion of ideas.

Kant: truth is the agreement of cognition and object; error is the illusion of reason.

Hegel: truth is the whole; error is the moment of negativity.

Marx: truth is practical; error is ideology.

Nietzsche: truth is a metaphor; error is a metaphor.

Ortega: truth is perspectival; error is the vital.

Sartre: truth is disclosed through action; error is bad faith.

Camus: truth is revolt; error is the absurd.

Plato: beauty is the Form; ugliness is the privation.

Aristotle: beauty is the mean; ugliness is the excess.

Augustine: beauty is the splendor of form; ugliness is the privation.

Kant: beauty is the disinterested pleasure; ugliness is the displeasure.

Hegel: beauty is the sensuous appearance of the idea; ugliness is the moment of negativity.

Nietzsche: beauty is the will to power; ugliness is the decadence.

Marx: beauty is ideological; ugliness is the alienation.

Ortega: beauty is vital; ugliness is the mass conformity.

Sartre: beauty is a project; ugliness is the bad faith.

Camus: beauty is revolt; ugliness is the absurd.

Kant: the sublime is the feeling of reason's superiority to nature; the beautiful is the disinterested pleasure.

Hegel: the sublime is the sensuous appearance of the infinite; the beautiful is the sensuous appearance of the idea.

Nietzsche: the sublime is the will to power; the beautiful is the will to power.

Marx: the sublime is ideological; the beautiful is ideological.

Ortega: the sublime is vital; the beautiful is vital.

Sartre: the sublime is a project; the beautiful is a project.

Camus: the sublime is revolt; the beautiful is revolt.

Longinus: the sublime is the echo of a great soul.

Burke: the sublime is terror; the beautiful is love.

Adorno: the sublime is the negative; the beautiful is the negative.

Aristotle: the tragic is the imitation of a serious action; the comic is the imitation of the ridiculous.

Hegel: the tragic is the collision of ethical powers; the comic is the self-destruction of the finite.

Nietzsche: the tragic is the affirmation of life; the comic is the will to power.

Marx: the tragic is historical; the comic is ideological.

Ortega: the tragic is vital; the comic is vital.

Sartre: the tragic is a project; the comic is a project.

Camus: the tragic is the absurd; the comic is the absurd.

Kierkegaard: the tragic is the ethical; the comic is the aesthetic.

Schopenhauer: the tragic is the denial of the will; the comic is the affirmation of the will.

Adorno: the tragic is the negative; the comic is the negative.

Augustine: the sacred is God; the profane is the earthly city.

Aquinas: the sacred is the divine; the profane is the natural.

Durkheim: the sacred is the collective representation; the profane is the individual.

Eliade: the sacred is the manifestation of the transcendent; the profane is homogeneous space.

Marx: the sacred is ideology; the profane is the material.

Nietzsche: the sacred is a projection; the profane is the will to power.

Ortega: the sacred is vital; the profane is the circumstance.

Sartre: the sacred is a project; the profane is the situation.

Camus: the sacred is absent; the profane is the absurd.

Heidegger: the sacred is the disclosure of being; the profane is the forgetting of being.

Plato: myth is the image of truth; logos is the grasp of the Forms.

Aristotle: myth is the probable; logos is the demonstration.

Augustine: myth is the sign of God; logos is the word of God.

Descartes: myth is the doubt; logos is the clear and distinct.

Hume: myth is the fiction; logos is the analysis of ideas.

Kant: myth is the illusion; logos is the critique of reason.

Hegel: myth is the moment of the concept; logos is the concept.

Marx: myth is the ideology; logos is the critique.

Nietzsche: myth is the metaphor; logos is the metaphor.

Ortega: myth is the vital; logos is the vital reason.

Sartre: myth is the project; logos is the engagement.

Camus: myth is the absurd; logos is the revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; poetry is the imitation of the imitation.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; poetry is the imitation of the universal.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; poetry is the sign of God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; poetry is the imagination.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; poetry is the sentiment.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; poetry is the genius.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; poetry is the sensuous appearance of the idea.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; poetry is the ideology.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; poetry is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; poetry is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; poetry is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; poetry is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; history is the shadow.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; history is the particular.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; history is the city of God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; history is the doubt.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; history is the matter of fact.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; history is the plan of nature.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; history is the self-development of Spirit.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; history is the class struggle.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; history is the genealogy.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; history is the articulation of generations.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; history is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; history is the absurd.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; politics is the art of the good.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; politics is the art of the good life.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; politics is the earthly city.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; politics is the doubt.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; politics is the matter of fact.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; politics is the realization of freedom.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; politics is ethical life.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; politics is class rule.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; politics is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; politics is mass society.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; politics is engagement.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; politics is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; ethics is the harmony of the soul.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; ethics is the mean.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; ethics is the love of God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; ethics is the doubt.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; ethics is the sentiment.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; ethics is the moral law.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; ethics is ethical life.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; ethics is class rule.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; ethics is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; ethics is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; ethics is engagement.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; ethics is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; aesthetics is the imitation of the Forms.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; aesthetics is the imitation of the mean.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; aesthetics is the splendor of form.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; aesthetics is the doubt.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; aesthetics is the sentiment.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; aesthetics is the disinterested pleasure.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; aesthetics is the sensuous appearance of the idea.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; aesthetics is the ideology.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; aesthetics is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; aesthetics is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; aesthetics is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; aesthetics is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; religion is the love of the Forms.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; religion is the contemplation of the good.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; religion is the love of God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; religion is the love of wisdom.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; religion is the analysis of ideas.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; religion is the postulate of practical reason.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; religion is the self-development of Spirit.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; religion is the opium of the people.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; religion is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; religion is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; religion is a project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; religion is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; science is the knowledge of the Forms.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; science is the demonstration.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; science is the knowledge of the creature.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; science is the method.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; science is the analysis of ideas.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; science is the application of categories.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; science is the self-development of the concept.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; science is the material.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; science is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; science is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; science is a project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; science is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; art is the imitation of the Forms.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; art is the imitation of the mean.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; art is the sign of God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; art is the imagination.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; art is the sentiment.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; art is the genius.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; art is the sensuous appearance of the idea.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; art is the ideology.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; art is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; art is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; art is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; art is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the preparation for death; life is the activity of the soul.

Aristotle: philosophy is the contemplation of the good; life is the activity of the soul.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; life is the gift of God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; life is the union of mind and body.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; life is a bundle of perceptions.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; life is the phenomenal.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; life is the immediate idea.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; life is social and material.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; life is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; life is the radical reality.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; life is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; life is the absurd.

Plato: philosophy is the preparation for death; death is the separation of soul and body.

Aristotle: philosophy is the contemplation of the good; death is the corruption of the composite.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; death is the consequence of sin.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; death is the corruption of the body.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; death is the end of perceptions.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; death is the end of the phenomenal.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; death is the moment of negativity.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; death is the end of labor.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; death is the eternal recurrence.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; death is a circumstance.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; death is the end of the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; death is the absurd.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; freedom is the rule of reason.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; freedom is the rule of reason.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; freedom is the capacity for good.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; freedom is the will.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; freedom is the absence of constraint.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; freedom is autonomy.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; freedom is the concept.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; freedom is emancipation.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; freedom is self-overcoming.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; freedom is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; freedom is radical.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; freedom is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; truth is the grasp of the Forms.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; truth is the correspondence of thought and thing.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; truth is God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; truth is clear and distinct perception.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; truth is the correspondence of ideas and impressions.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; truth is the agreement of cognition and object.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; truth is the whole.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; truth is practical.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; truth is a metaphor.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; truth is perspectival.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; truth is disclosed through action.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; truth is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; the good is the Form of the Good.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; the good is eudaimonia.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; the good is God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; the good is the good will.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; the good is the sentiment.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; the good is the good will.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; the good is ethical life.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; the good is emancipation.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; the good is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; the good is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; the good is authentic choice.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; the good is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; beauty is the Form of the Beautiful.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; beauty is the mean.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; beauty is the splendor of form.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; beauty is the clear and distinct.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; beauty is the sentiment.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; beauty is the disinterested pleasure.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; beauty is the sensuous appearance of the idea.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; beauty is the ideology.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; beauty is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; beauty is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; beauty is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; beauty is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; justice is the harmony of the soul.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; justice is the mean.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; justice is the order of love.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; justice is the clear and distinct.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; justice is the sentiment.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; justice is the coexistence of freedoms.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; justice is ethical life.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; justice is class rule.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; justice is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; justice is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; justice is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; justice is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; equality is geometric proportion.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; equality is proportional.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; equality is the equality of souls before God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; equality is the equality of rational agents.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; equality is the sentiment.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; equality is the equality of rational agents.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; equality is abstract.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; equality is formal.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; equality is a fiction.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; equality is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; equality is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; equality is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; liberty is the rule of reason.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; liberty is the rule of reason.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; liberty is the capacity for good.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; liberty is the will.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; liberty is the absence of constraint.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; liberty is autonomy.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; liberty is the concept.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; liberty is emancipation.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; liberty is self-overcoming.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; liberty is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; liberty is radical.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; liberty is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; tolerance is the respect for difference.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; tolerance is the respect for difference.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; tolerance is the respect for difference.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; tolerance is the respect for difference.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; tolerance is the respect for difference.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; tolerance is the respect for difference.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; tolerance is the respect for difference.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; tolerance is the respect for difference.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; tolerance is the respect for difference.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; tolerance is the respect for difference.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; tolerance is the respect for difference.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; tolerance is the respect for difference.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; rights are the functions of the soul.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; rights are the functions of the polis.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; rights are the order of love.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; rights are the clear and distinct.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; rights are the sentiment.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; rights are the coexistence of freedoms.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; rights are ethical life.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; rights are class rule.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; rights are a fiction.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; rights are vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; rights are the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; rights are revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; power is the rule of reason.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; power is the rule of law.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; power is the order of love.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; power is the clear and distinct.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; power is the sentiment.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; power is the coexistence of freedoms.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; power is ethical life.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; power is class rule.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; power is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; power is mass society.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; power is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; power is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; ideology is the shadow.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; ideology is the particular.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; ideology is the earthly city.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; ideology is the doubt.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; ideology is the fiction.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; ideology is the illusion.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; ideology is the moment of the concept.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; ideology is the class rule.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; ideology is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; ideology is the mass conformity.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; ideology is the bad faith.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; ideology is the absurd.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; emancipation is the turning of the soul.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; emancipation is the realization of virtue.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; emancipation is salvation.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; emancipation is the doubt.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; emancipation is the analysis of ideas.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; emancipation is enlightenment.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; emancipation is the realization of freedom.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; emancipation is the overcoming of alienation.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; emancipation is self-overcoming.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; emancipation is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; emancipation is authenticity.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; emancipation is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; enlightenment is the turning of the soul.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; enlightenment is the realization of virtue.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; enlightenment is salvation.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; enlightenment is the doubt.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; enlightenment is the analysis of ideas.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; enlightenment is the emergence from immaturity.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; enlightenment is the moment of abstract freedom.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; enlightenment is the ideology of the bourgeoisie.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; enlightenment is the will to truth.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; enlightenment is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; enlightenment is engagement.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; enlightenment is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; progress is the turning of the soul.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; progress is the realization of virtue.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; progress is the city of God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; progress is the method.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; progress is the analysis of ideas.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; progress is the realization of freedom.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; progress is the realization of Spirit.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; progress is the development of productive forces.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; progress is a fiction.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; progress is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; progress is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; progress is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; crisis is the shadow.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; crisis is the particular.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; crisis is the earthly city.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; crisis is the doubt.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; crisis is the fiction.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; crisis is the illusion.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; crisis is the moment of negativity.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; crisis is the contradiction of capitalism.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; crisis is the decadence.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; crisis is the revolt of the masses.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; crisis is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; crisis is the absurd.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; hope is the expectation of the good.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; hope is the expectation of the good.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; hope is the theological virtue.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; hope is the doubt.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; hope is the sentiment.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; hope is the postulate of practical reason.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; hope is the moment of negativity.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; hope is emancipation.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; hope is a fiction.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; hope is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; hope is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; hope is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; love is the ascent to the Beautiful.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; love is the highest virtue.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; love is the order of love.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; love is the doubt.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; love is the sentiment.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; love is the duty of benevolence.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; love is the moment of recognition.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; love is the social relation.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; love is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; love is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; love is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; love is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; happiness is the rule of reason.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; happiness is eudaimonia.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; happiness is God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; happiness is the doubt.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; happiness is the sentiment.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; happiness is not the ground of morality.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; happiness is ethical life.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; happiness is emancipation.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; happiness is self-overcoming.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; happiness is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; happiness is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; happiness is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; pain is the disorder of the soul.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; pain is the excess of the mean.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; pain is the consequence of sin.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; pain is the doubt.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; pain is the sentiment.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; pain is the phenomenal.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; pain is the moment of negativity.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; pain is alienation.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; pain is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; pain is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; pain is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; pain is the absurd.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; pleasure is the satisfaction of appetite.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; pleasure is the activity of the mean.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; pleasure is the love of God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; pleasure is the doubt.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; pleasure is the sentiment.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; pleasure is the phenomenal.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; pleasure is the moment of negativity.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; pleasure is alienation.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; pleasure is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; pleasure is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; pleasure is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; pleasure is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; desire is the appetite.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; desire is the rational appetite.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; desire is the love of God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; desire is the doubt.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; desire is the sentiment.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; desire is the phenomenal.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; desire is the moment of negativity.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; desire is alienation.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; desire is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; desire is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; desire is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; desire is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; reason is the rule of the soul.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; reason is the rule of the soul.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; reason is illuminated by God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; reason is the natural light.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; reason is the slave of the passions.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; reason is the source of the moral law.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; reason is dialectical.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; reason is historical.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; reason is a tool of the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; reason is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; reason is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; reason is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; passion is the appetite.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; passion is the appetite.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; passion is the love of God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; passion is the doubt.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; passion is the sentiment.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; passion is the phenomenal.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; passion is the moment of negativity.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; passion is alienation.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; passion is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; passion is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; passion is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; passion is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; the will is the spirit.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; the will is the rational desire.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; the will is the capacity for good.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; the will is the capacity to affirm or deny.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; the will is the impression of reflection.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; the will is the autonomous moral law.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; the will is the self-development of the concept.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; the will is historical.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; the will is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; the will is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; the will is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; the will is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; the intellect is the rule of the soul.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; the intellect is the rule of the soul.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; the intellect is illuminated by God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; the intellect is the natural light.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; the intellect is the slave of the passions.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; the intellect is the source of the moral law.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; the intellect is dialectical.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; the intellect is historical.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; the intellect is a tool of the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; the intellect is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; the intellect is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; the intellect is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; imagination is the lowest form of cognition.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; imagination is the movement of the soul.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; imagination is the memory.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; imagination is the mind's power to form images.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; imagination is the faculty of ideas.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; imagination is the synthesis of intuition and concept.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; imagination is the moment of the concept.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; imagination is historical.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; imagination is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; imagination is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; imagination is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; imagination is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; memory is the recollection.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; memory is the movement of the soul.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; memory is the storehouse of the mind.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; memory is the doubt.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; memory is the impression.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; memory is the phenomenal.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; memory is the moment of the concept.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; memory is historical.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; memory is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; memory is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; memory is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; memory is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; language is a tool for grasping the Forms.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; language expresses thought.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; language is a sign system.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; language is a sign of thought.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; language expresses ideas.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; language is not the focus.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; language is the existence of spirit.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; language is ideological.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; language is metaphorical.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; language is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; language is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; language is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; the sign is the imitation.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; the sign is the symbol.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; the sign is a thing that signifies.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; the sign is the doubt.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; the sign is the impression.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; the sign is the phenomenal.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; the sign is the sensuous appearance of the idea.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; the sign is ideological.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; the sign is a metaphor.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; the sign is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; the sign is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; the sign is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; interpretation is the grasp of the Forms.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; interpretation is the grasp of the mean.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; interpretation is the grasp of the divine word.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; interpretation is the grasp of clear and distinct ideas.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; interpretation is the grasp of impressions.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; interpretation is the grasp of the categories.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; interpretation is the self-development of the concept.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; interpretation is the unmasking of ideology.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; interpretation is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; interpretation is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; interpretation is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; interpretation is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; truth is the grasp of the Forms.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; truth is the correspondence of thought and thing.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; truth is God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; truth is clear and distinct perception.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; truth is the correspondence of ideas and impressions.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; truth is the agreement of cognition and object.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; truth is the whole.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; truth is practical.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; truth is a metaphor.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; truth is perspectival.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; truth is disclosed through action.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; truth is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; method is dialectic.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; method is demonstration.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; method is the love of God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; method is analysis.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; method is empirical analysis.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; method is critique.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; method is dialectic.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; method is historical materialism.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; method is genealogy.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; method is vital reason.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; method is existential psychoanalysis.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; method is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; system is the hierarchy of the Forms.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; system is the hierarchy of the sciences.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; system is the order of love.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; system is the tree of knowledge.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; system is the science of human nature.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; system is the architectonic of reason.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; system is the whole.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; system is the material.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; system is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; system is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; system is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; system is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; dialectic is the ascent to the Forms.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; dialectic is reasoning from probable premises.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; dialectic is the order of love.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; dialectic is the method.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; dialectic is the analysis of ideas.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; dialectic is the illusion of reason.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; dialectic is the movement of the concept.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; dialectic is historical materialism.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; dialectic is a weapon of the weak.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; dialectic is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; dialectic is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; dialectic is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; contradiction is the sign of error.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; contradiction is the sign of error.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; contradiction is the sign of sin.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; contradiction is the sign of error.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; contradiction is the sign of error.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; contradiction is the sign of illusion.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; contradiction is the motor of the concept.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; contradiction is the motor of history.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; contradiction is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; contradiction is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; contradiction is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; contradiction is the absurd.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; negation is the privation.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; negation is the privation.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; negation is the privation.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; negation is the privation.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; negation is the fiction.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; negation is the limit.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; negation is the moment of the concept.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; negation is the critique.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; negation is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; negation is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; negation is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; negation is the absurd.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; affirmation is the grasp of the Forms.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; affirmation is the demonstration.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; affirmation is the love of God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; affirmation is the clear and distinct.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; affirmation is the impression.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; affirmation is the category.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; affirmation is the moment of the concept.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; affirmation is the critique.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; affirmation is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; affirmation is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; affirmation is the project.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; affirmation is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; freedom is the rule of reason.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; freedom is the rule of reason.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; freedom is the capacity for good.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; freedom is the will.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; freedom is the absence of constraint.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; freedom is autonomy.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; freedom is the concept.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; freedom is emancipation.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; freedom is self-overcoming.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; freedom is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; freedom is radical.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; freedom is revolt.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; necessity is the order of the Forms.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; necessity is the order of nature.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; necessity is the order of God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; necessity is the order of clear and distinct ideas.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; necessity is the constant conjunction.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; necessity is the order of nature.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; necessity is the moment of the concept.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; necessity is the material.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; necessity is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; necessity is the circumstance.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; necessity is the situation.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; necessity is the absurd.

Plato: philosophy is the grasp of the Forms; the good is the Form of the Good.

Aristotle: philosophy is the demonstration; the good is eudaimonia.

Augustine: philosophy is the love of God; the good is God.

Descartes: philosophy is the love of wisdom; the good is the good will.

Hume: philosophy is the analysis of ideas; the good is the sentiment.

Kant: philosophy is the critique of reason; the good is the good will.

Hegel: philosophy is the whole; the good is ethical life.

Marx: philosophy is the critique of ideology; the good is emancipation.

Nietzsche: philosophy is the will to power; the good is the will to power.

Ortega: philosophy is vital; the good is vital.

Sartre: philosophy is engagement; the good is authentic choice.

Camus: philosophy is revolt; the good is revolt.