FY13CE English cheat sheet

Context clues: definition (is/means), synonym (similarly), antonym (however), example (such as), and inference (cause/effect) reveal an unknown word's meaning.

Prefixes: un-/in-/im-/il-/ir- = not; re- = again; pre- = before; post- = after; sub- = under; super- = above; anti- = against; mis- = wrongly.

Suffixes that mark parts of speech: -tion/-ment/-ness/-ity = noun; -ive/-ous/-ful/-able = adjective; -ize/-ify/-en = verb; -ly = adverb (but friendly, lovely are adjectives).

Homophones to distinguish by meaning: affect (verb: influence) vs. effect (noun: result); principal (main/person) vs. principle (rule); stationary (still) vs. stationery (paper).

Commonly confused pairs: imply (speaker suggests) vs. infer (listener concludes); lie (recline, intransitive) vs. lay (put something down, transitive); fewer (countable) vs. less (uncountable).

Connotation: synonyms differ in tone - cheap (negative) vs. inexpensive (neutral); stubborn vs. determined; childlike vs. childish. Match word choice to intended tone.

Denotation is the dictionary meaning; a word can be denotatively neutral but connotatively loaded. Exam items often ask which word best fits the sentence's tone.

Idioms are fixed expressions whose meaning is not literal: 'break the ice' = start a conversation; 'once in a blue moon' = rarely; 'hit the books' = study.

Use a thesaurus result only if the synonym shares the original word's part of speech and register; 'big' → 'substantial' is formal, not a drop-in replacement in casual text.

A complete sentence needs a subject, a finite verb, and a complete thought. A fragment lacks one; a run-on joins two independent clauses without correct punctuation or conjunction.

Fix run-ons three ways: period + capital, semicolon, or comma + coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).

Subject-verb agreement: ignore prepositional phrases between subject and verb ('The box of pens is'); indefinite pronouns (everyone, each, neither) take singular verbs; 'either...or' agrees with the nearer subject.

Pronoun-antecedent agreement: singular antecedents take singular pronouns; 'everyone' is singular ('Everyone must bring his or her book').

Dangling modifiers: an introductory participial phrase must describe the sentence's subject. Wrong: 'Walking home, the rain started.' Right: 'Walking home, I was caught in the rain.'

Parallel structure: items in a list, comparison, or correlative pair must share grammatical form ('to read, to write, and to edit', not 'to read, writing, and editing').

Tense consistency: do not shift tense without a time signal. 'She entered and sits down' is wrong; 'She entered and sat down' is right.

Active vs. passive: active = subject performs the action (clearer, shorter); passive = subject receives it (useful when the doer is unknown or unimportant).

Punctuation rules: use a comma after an introductory clause, between items in a series, and before a coordinating conjunction joining independent clauses; do not use a comma to join two independent clauses (comma splice).

Main idea = what the whole passage is about; supporting details = facts, examples, or reasons that back it up. Distractor options are often true details but too narrow to be the main idea.

Question stems signal the skill: 'mainly about' = main idea; 'according to the passage' = literal detail; 'suggests/infers' = conclusion beyond the text; 'tone/attitude' = author's feeling.

Inference must be supported by textual evidence; a valid inference is the most logical conclusion, not merely a plausible one.

Author's purpose is usually to inform, persuade, entertain, or explain. Identify the verb in the question ('The author's purpose is to...') and match it to the passage's dominant mode.

Fact vs. opinion: facts can be verified; opinions contain judgment words (best, should, beautiful, seems). Signal words: 'I believe', 'clearly', 'arguably'.

Vocabulary in context: reread the sentence and the sentence before/after; substitute each option and choose the one that preserves the passage's meaning, not the most common dictionary sense.

Sequence and cause/effect: look for time markers (first, then, finally) and causal markers (because, therefore, as a result, led to).

Compare/contrast passages: identify the basis of comparison and whether the author favors one side; transitional words (however, similarly, in contrast) reveal the relationship.

Tone words: objective, critical, sympathetic, sarcastic, nostalgic, cautious. Tone is conveyed by word choice and punctuation, not by the topic alone.

Paragraph structure: topic sentence (claim) → supporting sentences (evidence, examples, explanation) → concluding/transition sentence. One controlling idea per paragraph.

Essay structure: introduction with thesis, body paragraphs each supporting one point, conclusion that restates the thesis and draws implications - no new major evidence in the conclusion.

Thesis statement: a single sentence that states the essay's position and previews the main points; it must be arguable, not a bare fact.

Transitions show relationships: addition (furthermore), contrast (however), cause (therefore), example (for instance), sequence (subsequently), concession (nevertheless).

Revision vs. editing: revision addresses content, organization, and clarity; editing addresses grammar, punctuation, and spelling. Do revision first.

Wordiness fixes: replace 'due to the fact that' with 'because'; 'in order to' with 'to'; 'at this point in time' with 'now'; delete redundant pairs ('each and every').

Formal register: avoid contractions, slang, and first-person 'I think' in academic writing; prefer precise verbs over 'is/are + noun' constructions.

Cohesion: repeat key terms, use pronouns with clear antecedents, and keep consistent point of view (first, second, or third person) throughout.

Common essay errors: off-topic drift, unsupported claims, inconsistent tense, and a conclusion that merely repeats the introduction word for word.

Listen for signpost language: 'first', 'next', 'however', 'in conclusion' signal the structure of a lecture or conversation and where key information sits.

Distinguish main idea from detail in audio: the speaker's purpose is often stated at the beginning or restated at the end; examples support, not replace, the main point.

Note-taking shorthand: use abbreviations (w/ = with, → = leads to, ∴ = therefore, ↑/↓ = increase/decrease) and capture nouns, verbs, and numbers rather than full sentences.

Intonation carries meaning: rising intonation often signals a question or uncertainty; falling intonation signals a statement; stress marks emphasis or contrast.

Listen for numbers, dates, and proper names; they are frequent question targets. Repeat them mentally and write them immediately.

Inference in listening: tone of voice, hesitation, and discourse markers ('well', 'actually', 'to be honest') reveal attitude and implied meaning.

Predict before and during listening: preview question stems, then listen for the specific information each question requires.

Distinguish similar-sounding words by context: 'thirteen' vs. 'thirty', 'can' vs. 'can't' (the negative is usually stressed and longer).

Fluency markers: fillers (um, well, you know) buy planning time but should be limited; pauses at clause boundaries sound more natural than mid-word hesitation.

Turn-taking signals: 'May I add...', 'That's a good point, but...', 'Could I finish?' manage interruption politely in discussion.

Pronunciation features that affect intelligibility: word stress (PREsent noun vs. preSENT verb), sentence stress on content words, and final consonant sounds.

Register shifts with audience: formal (Would you mind if...?) vs. informal (Mind if...?). Choose based on setting and relationship.

Functional language for oral tasks: giving opinions (In my view...), agreeing (I couldn't agree more), disagreeing (I see your point, however...), clarifying (What I mean is...).

Presentation structure: signpost the introduction (Today I'll cover three points), use transitions (Moving on to...), and summarize (To recap...).

Paraphrasing strategy when a word is unknown: describe the function ('a tool for cutting paper') or use a synonym rather than switching to another language.

Nonverbal delivery: eye contact, moderate pace (about 120–150 words per minute for clear speech), and varied pitch support comprehension.

Translation = written transfer between languages; interpretation = oral/aural transfer, often simultaneous or consecutive. Different accuracy and speed demands apply.

Sense-for-sense vs. word-for-word: literal translation preserves form but can distort meaning; sense-for-sense preserves meaning and natural target-language grammar.

False friends are words that look similar across languages but differ in meaning (e.g., English 'actual' vs. Spanish 'actual' = current). Verify, do not assume.

Idioms rarely translate literally; find an equivalent target-language idiom or paraphrase the meaning ('It's raining cats and dogs' → 'It's raining heavily').

Register and tone must be preserved: a formal source text should not become colloquial in translation; honorifics and politeness levels need target-language equivalents.

Consecutive interpretation: listen, take notes using symbols and abbreviations, then render the message; accuracy of names, numbers, and negations is critical.

Cultural adaptation: units, dates, and references may need conversion or explanation (miles to kilometers, culture-specific holidays).

Back-translation check: translate the target text back into the source language to detect meaning shifts, omissions, or additions.

Common translation errors: omission, addition, mistranslation of technical terms, and failure to preserve subject-verb relationships in long sentences.