FTCE ESOL K-12 cheat sheet

Phoneme: smallest unit of sound that distinguishes meaning (/p/ vs /b/ in pit/bit); English has about 44 phonemes, but the exact count varies by dialect and analysis.

Morpheme: smallest unit of meaning. Free morphemes stand alone (book); bound morphemes must attach (re-, -ed, -s). 'Unbelievably' has four morphemes: un + believe + able + ly.

Syntax vs. semantics vs. pragmatics: syntax = word order and sentence structure; semantics = literal meaning; pragmatics = meaning in context (e.g., 'Can you open the window?' as a request).

BICS vs. CALP (Cummins): BICS is conversational fluency, typically 1-3 years to develop; CALP is academic language proficiency, typically 5-7 years. BICS fluency can mask CALP gaps.

Krashen's five hypotheses: acquisition-learning, natural order, monitor, input (i+1), and affective filter. Comprehensible input just beyond current level drives acquisition; anxiety and low motivation raise the affective filter.

Cummins' quadrants: cognitively undemanding/demanding crossed with context-embedded/context-reduced. Scaffolding moves ELLs from context-embedded tasks toward context-reduced academic tasks.

Language transfer and contrastive analysis: L1 features can transfer positively or negatively (interference). Spanish-speaking ELLs may omit English subject pronouns or add /e/ before /s/-clusters ('eschool').

Interlanguage and error analysis: learner errors often reflect rule-building, not carelessness. Developmental errors (overgeneralization like 'goed') differ from transfer errors and from mistakes (self-correctable slips).

Semantics and vocabulary relations: synonyms, antonyms, homonyms (bank/bank), homophones (to/too/two), polysemy, and cognates. Spanish-English cognates (familia/family) aid comprehension when false cognates (embarazada/pregnant) are flagged.

Culture has visible and invisible dimensions: surface elements (food, dress, festivals) versus deep elements (values, beliefs, communication norms, concepts of time and politeness). Deep culture drives most classroom misunderstanding.

Individualism vs. collectivism (Hofstede): individualist cultures value independence and self-expression; collectivist cultures value group harmony and interdependence. This affects group work, competition, and public correction.

High-context vs. low-context communication (Hall): high-context cultures rely on shared context, indirectness, and nonverbal cues; low-context cultures rely on explicit verbal messages. U.S. schools are comparatively low-context.

Power distance affects classroom roles: in high power-distance cultures teachers are authority figures not to be questioned; students may avoid eye contact, debate, or volunteering as a sign of respect.

Cultural relativism vs. ethnocentrism: cultural relativism interprets behavior within its own cultural frame; ethnocentrism judges other cultures by one's own standards. Culturally responsive teaching requires the former.

Acculturation models (Berry): assimilation, integration, separation, and marginalization, based on maintaining heritage culture and participating in the new culture. Integration (biculturalism) is associated with the best adjustment outcomes.

Culture shock stages: honeymoon, frustration/hostility, adjustment, and adaptation. Newcomers may show withdrawal, fatigue, or acting-out during the frustration stage.

Culturally responsive pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, Gay): academic success, cultural competence, and critical consciousness. Instruction uses students' cultural referents as resources, not deficits.

Equity vs. equality: equality gives all students the same input; equity provides what each student needs to reach the same standard. Deficit thinking (blaming students' backgrounds) is a documented barrier to ELL achievement.

SIOP components (8): lesson preparation, building background, comprehensible input, strategies, interaction, practice/application, lesson delivery, review/assessment. Each has observable features used in observation protocols.

Language objectives must name a language function plus a support: e.g., 'Students will explain the water cycle using sequence words and a labeled diagram.' Content objectives state the content standard.

WIDA ELD standards: Social and Instructional Language, Language Arts, Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies. Proficiency levels 1-6: Entering, Emerging, Developing, Expanding, Bridging, Reaching.

Scaffolding types: verbal (modeling, think-alouds), procedural (step charts, sentence frames), instructional (graphic organizers, leveled texts). Scaffolds are temporary and removed as proficiency grows.

Sheltered instruction features: modified speech (slower rate, clear enunciation, pauses), visuals, hands-on materials, cooperative grouping, and explicit vocabulary teaching, while keeping grade-level content.

Bilingual program models: transitional bilingual (moves to English, subtractive), developmental/maintenance bilingual, dual-language/two-way immersion (additive, aims for biliteracy), and newcomer programs.

Co-teaching models for ESOL push-in: one teach/one observe, one teach/one assist, station teaching, parallel teaching, alternative teaching, and team teaching. Each distributes responsibility differently.

Grouping and interaction: flexible grouping, cooperative learning structures (think-pair-share, jigsaw), and structured oral practice increase comprehensible output, which Swain identifies as necessary for language development.

Classroom management for ELLs: predictable routines, clear visual directions, native-language support when available, and avoiding public oral correction that raises anxiety. L1 use is a resource, not a rule violation.

Formative vs. summative: formative assessment is ongoing and used to adjust instruction; summative assessment measures achievement at the end of a unit. Both must be accessible to ELLs.

Language proficiency vs. content achievement: a low content score may reflect English proficiency, not content knowledge. Assessments should separate language demand from content demand.

Accommodations for ELLs: extended time, bilingual glossary, simplified English directions, read-aloud of directions (not reading passages), visual supports, and small-group administration, per IEP/LEP plan and state rules.

Validity and reliability: validity = the test measures what it claims; reliability = consistency across occasions and raters. A test can be reliable but invalid for ELLs if language load confounds content.

Bias in assessment: cultural bias (content assumes unfamiliar experiences), linguistic bias (complex syntax or idioms), and item bias (differential item functioning). Review items for both.

Alternative and authentic assessment: portfolios, performance tasks, projects, and oral interviews capture learning that paper tests miss, especially for ELLs at low proficiency levels.

WIDA ACCESS and screener: ACCESS for ELLs measures annual English proficiency in listening, speaking, reading, writing; the WIDA Screener or MODEL identifies initial proficiency for placement.

Rubrics and scoring: analytic rubrics score dimensions separately (content, organization, language); holistic rubrics give one overall score. Analytic rubrics give ELLs more diagnostic feedback.

Assessment cycle: identify standard, set language and content objectives, design aligned assessment, collect evidence, analyze results, and adjust instruction. Feedback should be specific and timely.

Phoneme: smallest unit of sound that distinguishes meaning (/p/ vs /b/ in pit/bit); English has about 44 phonemes, but the exact count varies by dialect and analysis.

Morpheme: smallest unit of meaning. Free morphemes stand alone (book); bound morphemes must attach (re-, -ed, -s). 'Unbelievably' has four morphemes: un + believe + able + ly.

Syntax vs. semantics vs. pragmatics: syntax = word order and sentence structure; semantics = literal meaning; pragmatics = meaning in context (e.g., 'Can you open the window?' as a request).

BICS vs. CALP (Cummins): BICS is conversational fluency, typically 1-3 years to develop; CALP is academic language proficiency, typically 5-7 years. BICS fluency can mask CALP gaps.

Krashen's five hypotheses: acquisition-learning, natural order, monitor, input (i+1), and affective filter. Comprehensible input just beyond current level drives acquisition; anxiety and low motivation raise the affective filter.

Cummins' quadrants: cognitively undemanding/demanding crossed with context-embedded/context-reduced. Scaffolding moves ELLs from context-embedded tasks toward context-reduced academic tasks.

Language transfer and contrastive analysis: L1 features can transfer positively or negatively (interference). Spanish-speaking ELLs may omit English subject pronouns or add /e/ before /s/-clusters ('eschool').

Interlanguage and error analysis: learner errors often reflect rule-building, not carelessness. Developmental errors (overgeneralization like 'goed') differ from transfer errors and from mistakes (self-correctable slips).

Semantics and vocabulary relations: synonyms, antonyms, homonyms (bank/bank), homophones (to/too/two), polysemy, and cognates. Spanish-English cognates (familia/family) aid comprehension when false cognates (embarazada/pregnant) are flagged.

Culture has visible and invisible dimensions: surface elements (food, dress, festivals) versus deep elements (values, beliefs, communication norms, concepts of time and politeness). Deep culture drives most classroom misunderstanding.

Individualism vs. collectivism (Hofstede): individualist cultures value independence and self-expression; collectivist cultures value group harmony and interdependence. This affects group work, competition, and public correction.

High-context vs. low-context communication (Hall): high-context cultures rely on shared context, indirectness, and nonverbal cues; low-context cultures rely on explicit verbal messages. U.S. schools are comparatively low-context.

Power distance affects classroom roles: in high power-distance cultures teachers are authority figures not to be questioned; students may avoid eye contact, debate, or volunteering as a sign of respect.

Cultural relativism vs. ethnocentrism: cultural relativism interprets behavior within its own cultural frame; ethnocentrism judges other cultures by one's own standards. Culturally responsive teaching requires the former.

Acculturation models (Berry): assimilation, integration, separation, and marginalization, based on maintaining heritage culture and participating in the new culture. Integration (biculturalism) is associated with the best adjustment outcomes.

Culture shock stages: honeymoon, frustration/hostility, adjustment, and adaptation. Newcomers may show withdrawal, fatigue, or acting-out during the frustration stage.

Culturally responsive pedagogy (Ladson-Billings, Gay): academic success, cultural competence, and critical consciousness. Instruction uses students' cultural referents as resources, not deficits.

Equity vs. equality: equality gives all students the same input; equity provides what each student needs to reach the same standard. Deficit thinking (blaming students' backgrounds) is a documented barrier to ELL achievement.

SIOP components (8): lesson preparation, building background, comprehensible input, strategies, interaction, practice/application, lesson delivery, review/assessment. Each has observable features used in observation protocols.

Language objectives must name a language function plus a support: e.g., 'Students will explain the water cycle using sequence words and a labeled diagram.' Content objectives state the content standard.

WIDA ELD standards: Social and Instructional Language, Language Arts, Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies. Proficiency levels 1-6: Entering, Emerging, Developing, Expanding, Bridging, Reaching.

Scaffolding types: verbal (modeling, think-alouds), procedural (step charts, sentence frames), instructional (graphic organizers, leveled texts). Scaffolds are temporary and removed as proficiency grows.

Sheltered instruction features: modified speech (slower rate, clear enunciation, pauses), visuals, hands-on materials, cooperative grouping, and explicit vocabulary teaching, while keeping grade-level content.

Bilingual program models: transitional bilingual (moves to English, subtractive), developmental/maintenance bilingual, dual-language/two-way immersion (additive, aims for biliteracy), and newcomer programs.

Co-teaching models for ESOL push-in: one teach/one observe, one teach/one assist, station teaching, parallel teaching, alternative teaching, and team teaching. Each distributes responsibility differently.

Grouping and interaction: flexible grouping, cooperative learning structures (think-pair-share, jigsaw), and structured oral practice increase comprehensible output, which Swain identifies as necessary for language development.

Classroom management for ELLs: predictable routines, clear visual directions, native-language support when available, and avoiding public oral correction that raises anxiety. L1 use is a resource, not a rule violation.

Formative vs. summative: formative assessment is ongoing and used to adjust instruction; summative assessment measures achievement at the end of a unit. Both must be accessible to ELLs.

Language proficiency vs. content achievement: a low content score may reflect English proficiency, not content knowledge. Assessments should separate language demand from content demand.

Accommodations for ELLs: extended time, bilingual glossary, simplified English directions, read-aloud of directions (not reading passages), visual supports, and small-group administration, per IEP/LEP plan and state rules.

Validity and reliability: validity = the test measures what it claims; reliability = consistency across occasions and raters. A test can be reliable but invalid for ELLs if language load confounds content.

Bias in assessment: cultural bias (content assumes unfamiliar experiences), linguistic bias (complex syntax or idioms), and item bias (differential item functioning). Review items for both.

Alternative and authentic assessment: portfolios, performance tasks, projects, and oral interviews capture learning that paper tests miss, especially for ELLs at low proficiency levels.

WIDA ACCESS and screener: ACCESS for ELLs measures annual English proficiency in listening, speaking, reading, writing; the WIDA Screener or MODEL identifies initial proficiency for placement.

Rubrics and scoring: analytic rubrics score dimensions separately (content, organization, language); holistic rubrics give one overall score. Analytic rubrics give ELLs more diagnostic feedback.

Assessment cycle: identify standard, set language and content objectives, design aligned assessment, collect evidence, analyze results, and adjust instruction. Feedback should be specific and timely.