Georgia Milestones key terms

The most important point an author wants a reader to understand about a passage. It is usually stated in a topic sentence or must be inferred from details spread across the whole text.

A fact, example, statistic, or quotation that explains or proves the main idea. Details answer questions like who, what, when, where, why, and how within a passage.

A broader message about life or human nature that a literary work conveys, such as courage or loyalty. Unlike a main idea, a theme applies beyond the specific story.

A conclusion a reader draws by combining clues in a text with prior knowledge. The answer is not stated directly, so the reader must reason from evidence.

A direct quotation or specific detail from a passage used to support an answer or claim. Strong responses cite evidence and explain how it proves the point.

The reason a writer created a text, commonly to inform, persuade, entertain, or explain. Readers identify purpose by examining word choice, structure, and the effect on the audience.

The perspective from which a story is told, such as first person, third-person limited, or third-person omniscient. It also refers to an author's stance on an issue in informational text.

The attitude a writer expresses toward the subject or audience, conveyed through word choice and sentence structure. Tone differs from mood, which is the feeling a reader experiences.

Language that goes beyond literal meaning to create vivid images or comparisons, including simile, metaphor, personification, and hyperbole. It shapes tone and helps readers picture ideas.

Words, phrases, or sentences surrounding an unfamiliar word that help a reader figure out its meaning. Types include definitions, examples, synonyms, antonyms, and general sense of the sentence.

The methods an author uses to reveal a character's personality, including direct description and indirect clues such as actions, dialogue, thoughts, and reactions of others.

The sequence of events in a story, typically moving through exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. Conflict drives the plot forward.

A brief restatement of a text's central ideas and key details in the reader's own words. A good summary is accurate, concise, and free of personal opinion.

A statement an author or speaker asserts as true and then supports with reasons and evidence. In argument writing, the claim is the position the writer defends.

An opposing viewpoint that a writer acknowledges and then answers. Addressing counterarguments strengthens an argument by showing the writer has considered other positions.

A comparison of two quantities by division, often written as a to b, a:b, or a/b. Ratios describe relationships such as 3 cups of flour for every 2 cups of sugar.

A relationship in which two quantities vary at a constant rate, so their ratio stays the same. Its graph is a straight line passing through the origin.

A rate in which the second quantity is one unit, such as miles per hour or cost per ounce. Unit rates allow easy comparison of different offers or speeds.

An equation whose graph is a straight line, typically written as y = mx + b. The value m is the slope and b is the y-intercept.

A measure of a line's steepness, calculated as rise over run or change in y divided by change in x. Slope describes the constant rate of change in a linear relationship.

A rule that assigns exactly one output to each input. Functions can be shown as tables, graphs, equations, or verbal descriptions.

A mathematical phrase combining numbers, variables, and operations without an equals sign, such as 4x + 7. Expressions can be simplified or evaluated but not solved.

A mathematical statement that two expressions are equal, containing an equals sign. Solving an equation means finding values of the variable that make the statement true.

A symbol, usually a letter, that stands for an unknown or changing number. Variables let mathematicians write general rules and solve for missing values.

The arithmetic average of a data set, found by adding all values and dividing by the number of values. The mean is affected strongly by unusually high or low data points.

The middle value in an ordered data set, or the average of the two middle values when the count is even. The median is less affected by extreme values than the mean.

The overall pattern of a data set, described by its center, spread, shape, and outliers. Graphs such as dot plots, histograms, and box plots display distributions visually.

The rule stating that in a right triangle the square of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares of the other two sides, written a squared plus b squared equals c squared.

A systematic process for investigating questions that includes forming a hypothesis, designing a controlled experiment, collecting data, and drawing conclusions. Results should be repeatable by others.

A testable prediction about the outcome of an experiment, often stated as an if-then relationship. A hypothesis must be measurable and can be supported or rejected by data.

The factor an experimenter deliberately changes in an investigation. It is the cause being tested, while the dependent variable is the measured effect.

The factor that is measured or observed in an experiment and responds to changes in the independent variable. It is the outcome or effect being studied.

A factor kept the same across all trials of an experiment so that results can be attributed to the independent variable. Also called a constant.

Information gathered directly through the senses or with instruments, such as measuring length or noting color. Observations may be qualitative, describing qualities, or quantitative, involving numbers.

A community of living organisms interacting with one another and with nonliving parts of their environment, such as water, soil, and sunlight. Energy flows through it and matter cycles within it.

A model showing how energy moves among organisms in an ecosystem through feeding relationships. It links multiple food chains and includes producers, consumers, and decomposers.

The process by which green plants use sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to make glucose and release oxygen. It is the main way energy enters most ecosystems.

A material from the environment that people use to meet their needs, such as water, timber, minerals, and fossil fuels. Resources may be renewable or nonrenewable depending on how quickly they replenish.

The value of the next-best alternative given up when a person or group makes a choice. Scarcity forces every decision to have an opportunity cost.

The condition in which human wants exceed the limited resources available to satisfy them. Scarcity leads to choices about what to produce, how to produce it, and for whom.

The quantity of a good or service consumers are willing and able to buy at various prices. As price rises, quantity demanded usually falls, a pattern called the law of demand.

Actions citizens take to influence government and improve their communities, including voting, contacting officials, attending public meetings, serving on juries, and volunteering.

A system of government in which power is divided between a national government and state governments. The United States Constitution assigns certain powers to each level and shares others.

The division of government into legislative, executive, and judicial branches, each with distinct duties. This structure prevents any one branch from holding all power.

The system that allows each branch of government to limit the powers of the other branches, such as a presidential veto or judicial review. It guards against abuse of power.

The written framework of the United States government that establishes its structure, powers, and limits while protecting individual rights. It can be amended and is the supreme law of the land.

A document or object created by someone with direct knowledge of an event, such as a letter, diary, photograph, or law. Historians use primary sources as original evidence.