GCAA Ghana CPL Theory Exam cheat sheet

ICAO Annex 2: right-of-way rules - converging aircraft of same category: the one on the right has right of way; head-on: both turn right; overtaking: the overtaken aircraft has right of way.

VFR minima in controlled airspace (ICAO): 5 km flight visibility, 1500 m horizontal and 300 m (1000 ft) vertical distance from cloud above 900 m (3000 ft) AMSL; at and below 900 m: 5 km visibility, clear of cloud and in sight of surface.

Aerodrome traffic circuit: all turns to the left unless otherwise specified; join downwind at circuit altitude; do not overtake on the final approach.

Emergency frequency 121.5 MHz; distress signal MAYDAY, urgency PAN-PAN; transponder codes: 7700 emergency, 7600 radio failure, 7500 unlawful interference.

Aircraft registration marks: Ghana prefix 9G-; certificate of airworthiness, certificate of registration, and crew licences must be carried on board.

Rules of the air: no aircraft shall be flown closer than 500 ft to any person, vessel, vehicle or structure except with permission or when landing/taking off.

Flight plan must be filed at least 30 minutes before departure for IFR; for VFR at least 30 minutes before crossing an international border.

Aerodrome operating minima: pilot must not continue approach below DA/MDA unless required visual references are established.

Lift formula: L = ½ ρ V² S CL; induced drag varies inversely with V²; parasite drag varies directly with V².

Critical angle of attack: the angle at which the wing stalls, independent of weight, speed, and bank angle; stall speed increases with weight and load factor (Vs = Vs1g × √n).

Asymmetric thrust: critical engine is the one whose failure produces the greatest yaw; for a conventional twin, the left engine (P-factor).

Load factor n = 1/cos(bank angle); at 60° bank, n = 2; stall speed increases by √2 (about 41%).

Bernoulli/Newton: increase in dynamic pressure gives decrease in static pressure; downwash and circulation produce lift; induced drag is a by-product.

Pitot-static system: pitot tube blocked → airspeed behaves like altimeter; static blocked → airspeed overreads in climb, underreads in descent; altimeter freezes.

Gyroscopic instruments: attitude indicator and heading indicator are vacuum-driven; turn coordinator is electrically driven; precession and rigidity in space are key properties.

Wingtip vortices: strongest when heavy, clean, and slow; avoidance: land after and take off before a heavy aircraft, stay upwind.

Takeoff distance increases with: higher altitude, higher temperature, higher weight, tailwind, uphill slope, and lower pressure.

Density altitude = pressure altitude + 120 × (OAT − ISA temperature); ISA temperature at sea level = 15°C, lapse rate 2°C/1000 ft.

Rate of climb = (excess power) / weight; best angle of climb (Vx) gives maximum height for distance; best rate (Vy) gives maximum height per time.

Landing distance increases with: higher approach speed, tailwind, downhill slope, higher temperature, and lower pressure.

Balanced field length: the distance in which the aircraft can either stop or continue takeoff after engine failure at V1.

Cruise performance: specific range = TAS / fuel flow; maximum range at speed for best lift/drag ratio; maximum endurance at minimum power speed.

Effect of wind on climb: headwind increases angle of climb for a given rate; wind gradient can cause sudden airspeed changes near ground.

Use of flaps: increases lift and drag; reduces stall speed; increases takeoff and landing distance if not used per AFM.

Mass and balance: CG position must lie within forward and aft limits; forward limit → higher stall speed, longer takeoff, reduced climb; aft limit → instability, light controls.

Load sheet: basic empty mass + crew + passengers + baggage + fuel = takeoff mass; zero fuel mass = takeoff mass − fuel.

Fuel planning: taxi fuel + trip fuel + contingency (5% of trip) + alternate fuel + final reserve (30 min for VFR, 45 min for IFR) + additional.

Use of moment = mass × arm; CG = total moment / total mass; shift CG by moving mass: ΔCG = (mass moved × distance moved) / total mass.

Floor loading limits and maximum compartment loads must be respected; dangerous goods require special approval and documentation.

Performance-limited mass: the lower of structural, performance, and runway-limited mass; use AFM charts with actual pressure altitude and temperature.

Fuel density: Jet A-1 ≈ 0.8 kg/L; Avgas 100LL ≈ 0.72 kg/L; temperature affects density; always convert volume to mass for mass and balance.

Trim: aft CG reduces trim drag and fuel consumption but must remain within certified limits.

Hypoxia: symptoms include euphoria, impaired judgement, headache, cyanosis; time of useful consciousness at FL350 ≈ 30–60 s; at FL250 ≈ 3–5 min.

Hyperventilation: rapid breathing leading to low CO2; symptoms similar to hypoxia; treatment: slow breathing, talk, reassure; if persists, treat as hypoxia.

Spatial disorientation: illusions include somatogravic (false climb/descent), somatogyral (false turn), and Coriolis; trust instruments.

Crew resource management: assertiveness, situational awareness, decision-making, communication, leadership, and teamwork; avoid authority gradient.

Fatigue: circadian low 02:00–06:00; cumulative fatigue requires rest; controlled rest on flight deck is regulated; alcohol: 8 hours bottle to throttle, blood alcohol < 0.02%.

Stress: fight-or-flight response; chronic stress impairs performance; use of checklists reduces workload and error.

Vision: night vision uses rods, best at 10–20° off-centre; avoid bright lights; dark adaptation takes 30 minutes.

Decompression sickness: nitrogen bubbles; avoid flying after diving (24 hours after multiple dives); treatment: 100% oxygen and descent.

ISA: sea level temperature 15°C, pressure 1013.25 hPa, lapse rate 1.98°C/1000 ft; tropopause at 36,090 ft (11 km).

QNH: altimeter reads elevation when set to QNH; QFE: reads height above reference; QNE: standard 1013.25 hPa used above transition altitude.

Cloud types: cumulonimbus → thunderstorms, icing, turbulence; stratus → low ceilings; cirrus → high altitude, fair weather.

Icing: most severe in cumuliform clouds between 0°C and −15°C; clear ice from large supercooled droplets; rime ice from small droplets; use anti-ice/de-ice.

Thunderstorm life cycle: cumulus, mature, dissipating; hazards: lightning, hail, microburst, wind shear, icing, turbulence; avoid by 20 nm.

Wind: surface friction causes backing and decrease in speed; veering with height in Northern Hemisphere; sea breeze blows from sea to land by day.

Fronts: cold front → rapid lifting, narrow band of showers, good visibility after; warm front → gradual lifting, wide cloud, poor visibility.

Altimeter setting: when flying from high to low pressure without adjusting, altimeter overreads (indicated altitude higher than true).

Great circle: shortest distance between two points on a sphere; rhumb line: constant track, longer except at equator or meridian.

Heading = track ± wind correction angle; drift = angle between heading and track; use of navigation computer (E6B) to solve wind triangle.

Magnetic variation: east is least (subtract), west is best (add) when converting true to magnetic; deviation from aircraft compass card.

1 in 60 rule: distance off track = (track error in degrees × distance flown) / 60; also used for closing angle.

Time = distance / groundspeed; fuel = fuel flow × time; use of mental dead reckoning (e.g., 120 kt = 2 nm/min).

Navigation aids: VOR radial, DME slant range, NDB bearing; GNSS provides position, track, groundspeed; RAIM check required for IFR.

Altimetry: true altitude = indicated altitude + (pressure altitude − indicated altitude) correction; temperature error: high to low, look out below.

Flight planning: select route, check NOTAMs, weather, fuel, alternate; ICAO flight plan format includes aircraft identification, speed, level, route.

Before takeoff: check weather, NOTAMs, mass and balance, performance, fuel, emergency brief; use of checklists.

Emergency procedures: engine failure after takeoff - maintain control, establish glide, select landing area, attempt restart if time permits; Mayday call.

Fire: use fire extinguisher, shut off fuel and electrical, descend if possible; cabin fire: use smoke goggles, extinguish, land as soon as possible.

Pressurization failure: don oxygen masks, emergency descent to 10,000 ft or MSA, declare emergency.

Radio failure: squawk 7600, continue VFR, land at nearest suitable aerodrome; IFR: follow lost communication procedures.

Wake turbulence: avoid by flying above and upwind; takeoff behind heavy: wait 2–3 minutes; land before heavy: land after 2–3 minutes.

Runway incursion: readback, sterile cockpit, use of standard phraseology; hold short of runway.

Security: unlawful interference squawk 7500; follow company procedures; do not disclose.

Fuel calculation: trip fuel = fuel flow × time; add contingency, alternate, final reserve, taxi; total fuel = sum.

Flight plan: filed at least 30 min before departure; include departure, route, destination, alternate, speed, level, ETA, endurance.

Monitoring: in-flight check of fuel, time, position, weather; use of flight log; revise estimates.

Alternate required: if destination weather below minima or no instrument approach; alternate must be within fuel range.

Critical fuel: point of no return (PNR) and equal time point (ETP); calculate using wind and fuel.

Weight and balance: ensure CG within limits for takeoff, landing, zero fuel; use load sheet.

Performance: takeoff and landing distance, climb gradient, obstacle clearance; use AFM data.

Weather: obtain briefing, check TAF, METAR, significant weather, winds aloft, freezing level.

VOR: radial indicates magnetic bearing from station; CDI centred with TO/FROM; accuracy ±1°; line-of-sight, range ≈ 1.23 × √height.

NDB/ADF: relative bearing = angle between aircraft heading and bearing to station; magnetic bearing = heading + relative bearing; accuracy ±5°.

DME: slant range; error increases with altitude and proximity; provides groundspeed and time to station.

ILS: localizer provides lateral guidance (108–112 MHz), glideslope vertical (329–335 MHz); markers at 4 nm (outer), 3500 ft (middle), 1000 ft (inner).

GNSS: RAIM detects faults; required for IFR; WAAS/SBAS improves accuracy; use of waypoints, track, distance.

Radar: primary radar uses reflection; secondary radar uses transponder; transponder codes as per ATC.

RNAV: area navigation; uses VOR/DME, GNSS; waypoints defined by coordinates; accuracy required for PBN.

Approach minima: DA/MDA, visibility; use of approach plates; missed approach procedure.

Phonetic alphabet: Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliett, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu.

Standard phraseology: "Say again", "Standby", "Roger", "Wilco", "Affirm", "Negative", "Cleared for takeoff", "Line up and wait".

Distress call: MAYDAY ×3, callsign, nature, intention; urgency: PAN-PAN ×3; use 121.5 MHz.

Readback required for: clearances, runway holding instructions, altimeter settings, headings, speeds, frequencies.

Position report: callsign, position, time, altitude, next position and ETA; use of standard format.

IFR clearance: includes aircraft identification, clearance limit, route, altitude, frequency; read back.

Lost communication: squawk 7600, attempt contact on previous frequency, then 121.5; follow flight plan.

Emergency descent: broadcast "Emergency descent" on 121.5, set transponder 7700.