GTLE Junior High School Pedagogy cheat sheet

Educational psychology is the scientific study of learners and learning in educational settings; it draws on developmental, cognitive, behavioral, and social psychology and uses empirical research designs rather than intuition alone.

Behaviorism (Pavlov, Watson, Skinner): learning is a change in observable behavior; classical conditioning pairs a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned one, operant conditioning shapes behavior through reinforcement and punishment schedules.

Cognitivism (Piaget, Bruner, Gagné): learning is information processing - attention, encoding, storage, retrieval; schema theory holds that prior knowledge structures determine how new information is interpreted.

Constructivism (Vygotsky, Dewey, von Glasersfeld): learners actively build knowledge from experience; Vygotsky's ZPD is the gap between independent performance and assisted performance, bridged by scaffolding.

Social learning theory (Bandura): modeling, vicarious reinforcement, and self-efficacy explain learning without direct reinforcement; reciprocal determinism links person, behavior, and environment.

Humanism (Maslow, Rogers): hierarchy of needs places safety, belonging, and esteem before self-actualization; learner-centered teaching emphasizes autonomy, acceptance, and self-directed inquiry.

Bloom's taxonomy (revised): Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, Create - a hierarchy of cognitive objectives used to align outcomes, activities, and assessment.

Transfer of learning: near transfer applies skills to similar contexts, far transfer to dissimilar ones; transfer is supported by varied practice, deliberate abstraction, and metacognitive cueing.

Piaget's stages: sensorimotor (0–2, object permanence), preoperational (2–7, symbolic thought, egocentrism, conservation failure), concrete operational (7–11, conservation, classification, reversibility), formal operational (11+, abstract and hypothetical reasoning).

Erikson's psychosocial stages relevant to school: industry vs. inferiority (approx. 6–12, competence through tasks) and identity vs. role confusion (adolescence, peer and role exploration).

Kohlberg's moral development: preconventional (punishment, self-interest), conventional (social approval, law and order), postconventional (social contract, universal principles); stages are not strictly age-locked.

Vygotsky's ZPD and private speech: self-talk gradually becomes inner speech; teachers scaffold within the ZPD by modeling, prompting, and gradually withdrawing support.

Kohlberg and Gilligan critique: Gilligan argued moral reasoning includes an ethic of care alongside justice reasoning; gender differences in reasoning are contested and not treated as deficits.

Adolescent brain development: prefrontal control systems mature later than limbic reward systems, explaining heightened risk-taking, sensation-seeking, and peer influence in early adolescence.

Memory and learning: working memory capacity is limited; chunking, spaced practice, retrieval practice, and dual coding (verbal plus visual) improve durable retention over massed rereading.

Motivation theory: intrinsic motivation (autonomy, competence, relatedness - self-determination theory) predicts persistence better than extrinsic rewards, which can undermine intrinsic interest (overjustification effect).

Curriculum has four common definitions: subject matter, planned experiences, intended outcomes, and a cultural/social reproduction process; the intended, implemented, and attained curriculum are distinct.

Tyler's rationale: objectives → learning experiences → organization → evaluation; Taba's model is inductive, starting from learner needs and building objectives from content diagnosis.

Curriculum orientations: academic rationalism (disciplines and canonical knowledge), cognitive processes (thinking skills), social reconstruction, self-actualization, and technological/behavioral (objectives-driven).

A syllabus is a course-level document specifying aims, learning outcomes, content sequence, time allocation, teaching approaches, and assessment weighting; it operationalizes the national or state curriculum.

Curriculum alignment: intended outcomes, learning activities, and assessment tasks must be mutually consistent; misalignment produces construct underrepresentation or irrelevant assessment.

Curriculum integration and spiral sequencing: Bruner's spiral curriculum revisits concepts with increasing complexity; integrated curricula organize around themes or problems rather than single subjects.

Hidden curriculum: values, norms, and expectations transmitted implicitly through routines, rules, and teacher behavior, distinct from the written curriculum.

Standard-based reform: content standards state what students should know, performance standards state how well; benchmarks and indicators break standards into observable grade-level expectations.

Lesson plan components: learning objectives, prerequisites, materials, introduction (hook/activation of prior knowledge), development (modeling, guided practice, independent practice), closure, and assessment.

SMART objectives: specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, time-bound; objectives use observable verbs (compare, classify, explain) rather than unobservable ones (know, understand).

Direct instruction (Rosenshine): review, present small steps, guided practice with high response rate, check for understanding, independent practice, weekly and monthly review.

Gradual release of responsibility (Pearson & Gallagher): modeled instruction (I do) → guided instruction (we do) → collaborative work (you do together) → independent work (you do).

Questioning technique: wait time of three to five seconds increases response length and participation; higher-order questions follow lower-order recall only after foundational knowledge is secure.

Cooperative learning structures: positive interdependence, individual accountability, face-to-face promotive interaction, social skills, and group processing (Johnson & Johnson).

Differentiation dimensions: content, process, product, and learning environment; adaptations include tiered tasks, flexible grouping, choice boards, and scaffolded texts.

Formative lesson pacing: transitions, signal systems, and chunking of content into 10–15 minute segments support attention; lesson closure should restate the objective and check its attainment.

Assessment types: diagnostic (before), formative (during, assessment for learning), summative (after, assessment of learning); each serves a different decision purpose.

Validity is the degree to which evidence supports intended interpretations and uses of scores; reliability is consistency across occasions, raters, or items. A test can be reliable but invalid.

Classical test theory: observed score = true score + error; item difficulty index p = proportion correct; item discrimination compares high and low scorers' performance on an item.

Norm-referenced assessment compares a student to a norm group; criterion-referenced assessment compares performance to explicit standards or learning outcomes.

Feedback (Hattie & Timperley) answers three questions: where am I going, how am I going, and where to next; feedback on the task and process is more effective than praise of the person.

Bloom's mastery learning and formative assessment: frequent low-stakes checks with corrective feedback and retesting raise achievement for the whole class.

Grading and reporting: percentage weighting must reflect stated assessment plans; rubrics with analytic descriptors increase inter-rater reliability; avoid scoring non-achievement factors in achievement grades.

Assessment bias: items that depend on cultural knowledge, language load, or access to resources unrelated to the construct reduce fairness and validity for diverse learners.

Classroom management dimensions (Kounin): withitness (awareness of multiple events), overlappingness, smoothness, momentum, and group focus reduce management problems.

Preventive management: clear routines, posted rules, seating arrangements matched to activity, and bell-to-bell instructional time reduce off-task behavior more effectively than reactive discipline.

Behaviorist management: positive reinforcement, token economies, contingency contracts, extinction, and time-out follow operant principles; punishment suppresses behavior without teaching a replacement.

Kounin's ripple effect: correcting one student's misbehavior can influence observers; desists should be brief, calm, and private where possible.

Restorative approaches: focus on harm, responsibility, and repair through circles and conferencing, contrasted with retributive (punitive) discipline models.

Maslow and safety: unmet physiological, safety, or belonging needs produce behavior that looks like defiance; addressing the need precedes academic demand.

Self-regulation supports: explicit teaching of routines, visual schedules, transition warnings, and choice within limits build executive-function skills.

Bullying and peer aggression: distinguish conflict from bullying (repeated, intentional, power imbalance); schools need reporting channels and documented response procedures.

Inclusion means students with disabilities learn in general education settings with appropriate supports and services; mainstreaming and integration describe partial placement models.

The medical model locates disability in the individual; the social model locates barriers in environment and attitudes; inclusive policy favors the social model.

Universal Design for Learning (UDL): multiple means of engagement, representation, and action/expression; it designs for variability rather than retrofitting for individual students.

Categories of SEN commonly recognized: specific learning disability (dyslexia, dyscalculia, dysgraphia), ADHD, autism spectrum disorder, intellectual disability, sensory impairment, speech/language disorder, and emotional/behavioral disorder.

Individualized education plan (IEP) components: present levels of performance, measurable goals, specialized instruction, related services, accommodations, least restrictive environment statement, and progress monitoring.

Accommodations change how a student accesses learning or assessment (extended time, audiobook, preferential seating); modifications change what is taught or expected (reduced content, altered standards).

Response to Intervention / multitiered systems: Tier 1 universal instruction, Tier 2 targeted small-group intervention, Tier 3 intensive individualized intervention with progress monitoring.

Gifted and twice-exceptional learners: giftedness is not a disability but requires differentiation; twice-exceptional students show both high ability and a disability that can mask each other.

Ethical principles for teachers: beneficence, nonmaleficence, autonomy, justice/fairness, and fidelity; professional codes govern conduct toward students, parents, colleagues, and the profession.

Confidentiality: student records and disclosures are shared only on a need-to-know basis; exceptions include child protection duties and imminent risk of harm.

Mandatory reporting: teachers are typically mandated reporters of suspected child abuse or neglect; good-faith reports are generally protected from liability.

In loco parentis: the school exercises a duty of care analogous to a parent's while students are under its supervision; negligence requires duty, breach, causation, and injury.

Corporal punishment and physical restraint: legal status varies by jurisdiction; restraint is limited to emergency protection from imminent harm and must be documented.

Teacher-student boundaries: dual relationships, private messaging, and transporting students alone create risk; professional distance protects both parties.

Copyright and fair use: classroom use of copyrighted works is limited by purpose, nature, amount, and market effect; attribution does not by itself excuse infringement.

Due process in discipline: procedural fairness includes notice of the allegation, an opportunity to respond, an impartial decision-maker, and reasons for the decision.

Epstein's six types of parental involvement: parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision-making, and collaborating with the community.

Overlapping spheres of influence: family, school, and community share responsibility for student development; strong overlap predicts better attendance, behavior, and achievement.

School-community partnership types: service learning, business and industry links, university partnerships, NGO and health-service collaboration, and alumni networks.

Co-curricular activities (clubs, sports, arts, student government) are school-sponsored and complement the curriculum; extracurricular activities are typically outside credit-bearing programs.

Benefits of co-curricular participation include belonging, leadership, teamwork, and attendance; participation is associated with lower dropout, though causality is confounded by selection.

Volunteer management: screening, role clarification, orientation, and recognition sustain community volunteer involvement; unscreened volunteers raise child-protection concerns.

School councils and student voice: student councils, focus groups, and surveys give learners decision-making roles; token participation without influence undermines engagement.

Communication with families: two-way channels, translated materials, and flexible meeting times increase participation from marginalized families; one-way notices do not.

Epstein's six types of parental involvement: parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision-making, and collaborating with the community.

Overlapping spheres of influence: family, school, and community share responsibility for student development; strong overlap predicts better attendance, behavior, and achievement.

School-community partnership types: service learning, business and industry links, university partnerships, NGO and health-service collaboration, and alumni networks.

Co-curricular activities (clubs, sports, arts, student government) are school-sponsored and complement the curriculum; extracurricular activities are typically outside credit-bearing programs.

Benefits of co-curricular participation include belonging, leadership, teamwork, and attendance; participation is associated with lower dropout, though causality is confounded by selection.

Volunteer management: screening, role clarification, orientation, and recognition sustain community volunteer involvement; unscreened volunteers raise child-protection concerns.

School councils and student voice: student councils, focus groups, and surveys give learners decision-making roles; token participation without influence undermines engagement.

Communication with families: two-way channels, translated materials, and flexible meeting times increase participation from marginalized families; one-way notices do not.

Educational psychology is the scientific study of learners and learning in educational settings; it draws on developmental, cognitive, behavioral, and social psychology and uses empirical research designs rather than intuition alone.

Behaviorism (Pavlov, Watson, Skinner): learning is a change in observable behavior; classical conditioning pairs a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned one, operant conditioning shapes behavior through reinforcement and punishment schedules.

Cognitivism (Piaget, Bruner, Gagné): learning is information processing - attention, encoding, storage, retrieval; schema theory holds that prior knowledge structures determine how new information is interpreted.

Constructivism (Vygotsky, Dewey, von Glasersfeld): learners actively build knowledge from experience; Vygotsky's ZPD is the gap between independent performance and assisted performance, bridged by scaffolding.

Social learning theory (Bandura): modeling, vicarious reinforcement, and self-efficacy explain learning without direct reinforcement; reciprocal determinism links person, behavior, and environment.

Humanism (Maslow, Rogers): hierarchy of needs places safety, belonging, and esteem before self-actualization; learner-centered teaching emphasizes autonomy, acceptance, and self-directed inquiry.

Bloom's taxonomy (revised): Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, Create - a hierarchy of cognitive objectives used to align outcomes, activities, and assessment.

Transfer of learning: near transfer applies skills to similar contexts, far transfer to dissimilar ones; transfer is supported by varied practice, deliberate abstraction, and metacognitive cueing.

Piaget's stages: sensorimotor (0–2, object permanence), preoperational (2–7, symbolic thought, egocentrism, conservation failure), concrete operational (7–11, conservation, classification, reversibility), formal operational (11+, abstract and hypothetical reasoning).

Erikson's psychosocial stages relevant to school: industry vs. inferiority (approx. 6–12, competence through tasks) and identity vs. role confusion (adolescence, peer and role exploration).

Kohlberg's moral development: preconventional (punishment, self-interest), conventional (social approval, law and order), postconventional (social contract, universal principles); stages are not strictly age-locked.

Vygotsky's ZPD and private speech: self-talk gradually becomes inner speech; teachers scaffold within the ZPD by modeling, prompting, and gradually withdrawing support.

Gilligan's critique: moral reasoning includes an ethic of care alongside justice reasoning; gender differences in reasoning are contested and not treated as deficits.

Adolescent brain development: prefrontal control systems mature later than limbic reward systems, explaining heightened risk-taking, sensation-seeking, and peer influence in early adolescence.

Memory and learning: working memory capacity is limited; chunking, spaced practice, retrieval practice, and dual coding (verbal plus visual) improve durable retention over massed rereading.

Motivation theory: intrinsic motivation (autonomy, competence, relatedness - self-determination theory) predicts persistence better than extrinsic rewards, which can undermine intrinsic interest (overjustification effect).

Curriculum has four common definitions: subject matter, planned experiences, intended outcomes, and a cultural/social reproduction process; the intended, implemented, and attained curriculum are distinct.

Tyler's rationale: objectives → learning experiences → organization → evaluation; Taba's model is inductive, starting from learner needs and building objectives from content diagnosis.

Curriculum orientations: academic rationalism (disciplines and canonical knowledge), cognitive processes (thinking skills), social reconstruction, self-actualization, and technological/behavioral (objectives-driven).

A syllabus is a course-level document specifying aims, learning outcomes, content sequence, time allocation, teaching approaches, and assessment weighting; it operationalizes the national or state curriculum.

Curriculum alignment: intended outcomes, learning activities, and assessment tasks must be mutually consistent; misalignment produces construct underrepresentation or irrelevant assessment.

Curriculum integration and spiral sequencing: Bruner's spiral curriculum revisits concepts with increasing complexity; integrated curricula organize around themes or problems rather than single subjects.

Hidden curriculum: values, norms, and expectations transmitted implicitly through routines, rules, and teacher behavior, distinct from the written curriculum.

Standard-based reform: content standards state what students should know, performance standards state how well; benchmarks and indicators break standards into observable grade-level expectations.

Lesson plan components: learning objectives, prerequisites, materials, introduction (hook/activation of prior knowledge), development (modeling, guided practice, independent practice), closure, and assessment.

SMART objectives: specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, time-bound; objectives use observable verbs (compare, classify, explain) rather than unobservable ones (know, understand).

Direct instruction (Rosenshine): review, present small steps, guided practice with high response rate, check for understanding, independent practice, weekly and monthly review.

Gradual release of responsibility (Pearson & Gallagher): modeled instruction (I do) → guided instruction (we do) → collaborative work (you do together) → independent work (you do).

Questioning technique: wait time of three to five seconds increases response length and participation; higher-order questions follow lower-order recall only after foundational knowledge is secure.

Cooperative learning structures: positive interdependence, individual accountability, face-to-face promotive interaction, social skills, and group processing (Johnson & Johnson).

Differentiation dimensions: content, process, product, and learning environment; adaptations include tiered tasks, flexible grouping, choice boards, and scaffolded texts.

Formative lesson pacing: transitions, signal systems, and chunking of content into 10–15 minute segments support attention; lesson closure should restate the objective and check its attainment.

Assessment types: diagnostic (before), formative (during, assessment for learning), summative (after, assessment of learning); each serves a different decision purpose.

Validity is the degree to which evidence supports intended interpretations and uses of scores; reliability is consistency across occasions, raters, or items. A test can be reliable but invalid.

Classical test theory: observed score = true score + error; item difficulty index p = proportion correct; item discrimination compares high and low scorers' performance on an item.

Norm-referenced assessment compares a student to a norm group; criterion-referenced assessment compares performance to explicit standards or learning outcomes.

Feedback (Hattie & Timperley) answers three questions: where am I going, how am I going, and where to next; feedback on the task and process is more effective than praise of the person.

Bloom's mastery learning and formative assessment: frequent low-stakes checks with corrective feedback and retesting raise achievement for the whole class.

Grading and reporting: percentage weighting must reflect stated assessment plans; rubrics with analytic descriptors increase inter-rater reliability; avoid scoring non-achievement factors in achievement grades.

Assessment bias: items that depend on cultural knowledge, language load, or access to resources unrelated to the construct reduce fairness and validity for diverse learners.

Classroom management dimensions (Kounin): withitness (awareness of multiple events), overlappingness, smoothness, momentum, and group focus reduce management problems.

Preventive management: clear routines, posted rules, seating arrangements matched to activity, and bell-to-bell instructional time reduce off-task behavior more effectively than reactive discipline.

Behaviorist management: positive reinforcement, token economies, contingency contracts, extinction, and time-out follow operant principles; punishment suppresses behavior without teaching a replacement.

Kounin's ripple effect: correcting one student's misbehavior can influence observers; desists should be brief, calm, and private where possible.

Restorative approaches: focus on harm, responsibility, and repair through circles and conferencing, contrasted with retributive (punitive) discipline models.

Maslow and safety: unmet physiological, safety, or belonging needs produce behavior that looks like defiance; addressing the need precedes academic demand.

Self-regulation supports: explicit teaching of routines, visual schedules, transition warnings, and choice within limits build executive-function skills.

Bullying and peer aggression: distinguish conflict from bullying (repeated, intentional, power imbalance); schools need reporting channels and documented response procedures.

Inclusion means students with disabilities learn in general education settings with appropriate supports and services; mainstreaming and integration describe partial placement models.

The medical model locates disability in the individual; the social model locates barriers in environment and attitudes; inclusive policy favors the social model.

Universal Design for Learning (UDL): multiple means of engagement, representation, and action/expression; it designs for variability rather than retrofitting for individual students.

Categories of SEN commonly recognized: specific learning disability (dyslexia, dyscalculia, dysgraphia), ADHD, autism spectrum disorder, intellectual disability, sensory impairment, speech/language disorder, and emotional/behavioral disorder.

Individualized education plan (IEP) components: present levels of performance, measurable goals, specialized instruction, related services, accommodations, least restrictive environment statement, and progress monitoring.

Accommodations change how a student accesses learning or assessment (extended time, audiobook, preferential seating); modifications change what is taught or expected (reduced content, altered standards).

Response to Intervention / multitiered systems: Tier 1 universal instruction, Tier 2 targeted small-group intervention, Tier 3 intensive individualized intervention with progress monitoring.

Gifted and twice-exceptional learners: giftedness is not a disability but requires differentiation; twice-exceptional students show both high ability and a disability that can mask each other.

Ethical principles for teachers: beneficence, nonmaleficence, autonomy, justice/fairness, and fidelity; professional codes govern conduct toward students, parents, colleagues, and the profession.

Confidentiality: student records and disclosures are shared only on a need-to-know basis; exceptions include child protection duties and imminent risk of harm.

Mandatory reporting: teachers are typically mandated reporters of suspected child abuse or neglect; good-faith reports are generally protected from liability.

In loco parentis: the school exercises a duty of care analogous to a parent's while students are under its supervision; negligence requires duty, breach, causation, and injury.

Corporal punishment and physical restraint: legal status varies by jurisdiction; restraint is limited to emergency protection from imminent harm and must be documented.

Teacher-student boundaries: dual relationships, private messaging, and transporting students alone create risk; professional distance protects both parties.

Copyright and fair use: classroom use of copyrighted works is limited by purpose, nature, amount, and market effect; attribution does not by itself excuse infringement.

Due process in discipline: procedural fairness includes notice of the allegation, an opportunity to respond, an impartial decision-maker, and reasons for the decision.