HiSET Reading cheat sheet

Main idea = topic + the author's point about it; it must be broad enough to cover every supporting detail but narrow enough to exclude unrelated ideas.

An inference must be supported by at least one explicit detail in the text; a conclusion with no textual support is a guess, not an inference.

Author's purpose usually falls into four categories - inform, persuade, entertain, explain/instruct - and is signaled by word choice, structure, and emphasis.

Tone is the author's attitude toward the subject (skeptical, admiring, bitter); mood is the emotional feeling created in the reader.

Signal words for cause-effect: because, therefore, as a result, consequently, since. For contrast: however, although, whereas, on the other hand.

Chronological passages are organized by time markers (first, next, finally, in 1865); problem-solution passages state a problem and then propose remedies.

A fact is a verifiable statement; an opinion is a judgment or belief, often signaled by words such as should, best, beautiful, or worst.

When comparing two passages, identify each author's claim, evidence, and tone separately before deciding exactly where they agree or conflict.

A thesis states a claim that can be argued or supported with evidence; a bare statement of fact is not a thesis.

Paragraph order: topic sentence, supporting evidence with commentary, then a concluding or transitional sentence that links to the next idea.

Transition categories: addition (also, moreover), contrast (however, yet), cause-effect (therefore, thus), example (for instance, namely).

A complete sentence needs a subject, a verb, and a complete thought; missing any one of the three produces a fragment.

Fix a run-on with a period, a semicolon, or a comma plus a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so).

A comma splice joins two independent clauses with only a comma; replace the comma with a semicolon or add a coordinating conjunction.

Subject-verb agreement: ignore prepositional phrases between subject and verb, and treat each, everyone, neither, and everybody as singular.

A modifier should sit next to the word it describes; a dangling modifier has no logical word in the sentence to attach to.

Use commas for items in a series, after introductory phrases, and around nonessential clauses that could be removed without changing the core meaning.

Order of operations: parentheses, then exponents, then multiplication and division left to right, then addition and subtraction left to right.

Percent of a number: part = percent × whole, so 15% of 80 = 0.15 × 80 = 12.

Percent change = (new − old) ÷ old × 100; a positive result is an increase and a negative result is a decrease.

Solve proportions by cross-multiplying: if a/b = c/d, then ad = bc.

Slope m = (y₂ − y₁)/(x₂ − x₁); a horizontal line has slope 0 and a vertical line has undefined slope.

To solve a linear equation, undo operations in reverse order - addition/subtraction first, then multiplication/division.

Area formulas: rectangle lw, triangle ½bh, circle πr²; circumference 2πr; volume of a rectangular prism lwh.

Mean = sum ÷ count; median = middle value of an ordered list; mode = most frequent value; range = maximum − minimum.

Probability of an event = favorable outcomes ÷ total outcomes; for independent events, P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B).

Experiment design requires one independent variable, a measured dependent variable, controlled constants, and a control group used as a baseline.

A hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable; a prediction states the expected outcome if the hypothesis is correct.

On a graph, the independent variable goes on the x-axis and the dependent variable on the y-axis; slope shows the rate of change.

Plant cells have a cell wall and chloroplasts; both plant and animal cells have a nucleus, mitochondria, and a cell membrane.

Newton's laws: an object's motion changes only with an unbalanced force, F = ma, and every action has an equal and opposite reaction.

Changes of state follow energy gain or loss: solid to liquid is melting, liquid to gas is evaporation, gas to liquid is condensation.

In a food web, arrows point from the organism eaten to the eater, showing energy flow; producers occupy the first trophic level.

pH below 7 is acidic, 7 is neutral, and above 7 is basic; each whole unit represents a tenfold change in hydrogen ion concentration.

Primary sources are created by participants or witnesses (letters, photographs, laws); secondary sources interpret them (textbooks, documentaries).

A source's reliability rises with proximity to the event, corroboration by independent sources, and the absence of obvious bias.

In historical analysis, distinguish immediate triggers from long-term underlying causes of the same event.

Three branches of U.S. government: legislative makes laws, executive enforces laws, judicial interprets laws.

Checks and balances examples: presidential veto, congressional override of a veto, judicial review, and Senate confirmation of appointments.

Map essentials include title, legend, scale, and compass rose; latitude lines run east-west and measure distance north or south of the equator.

Economic basics: scarcity forces choices, opportunity cost is the next best alternative given up, and supply and demand together set market price.

Chronology: BCE counts backward and CE forward, and centuries are named by the preceding digits, so 1865 falls in the 19th century.