HKCFP Conjoint MCQ key terms

The estimated likelihood that a patient has a condition before any test is performed, based on prevalence, history and examination findings. It guides whether testing is worthwhile and how results should be interpreted.

The proportion of people who truly have a disease and are correctly identified by a test as positive. A highly sensitive test is useful for ruling out disease when the result is negative.

The proportion of people without a disease who are correctly identified by a test as negative. A highly specific test is useful for confirming disease when the result is positive.

The probability that a person with a positive test result actually has the disease. It rises as disease prevalence in the tested population increases, unlike sensitivity and specificity.

The probability that a person with a negative test result truly does not have the disease. It is higher when the condition is uncommon in the population being tested.

A measure of how much a test result changes the odds of disease. The positive likelihood ratio compares positivity rates in diseased versus non-diseased people; the negative ratio compares negativity rates.

The number of patients who must receive an intervention for one additional patient to benefit over a defined period. It is the reciprocal of the absolute risk reduction.

The number of patients exposed to an intervention for one additional patient to experience an adverse outcome. It is the reciprocal of the absolute risk increase for that harm.

The arithmetic difference in event rates between control and treatment groups. It reflects the actual clinical benefit in a population and is used to calculate number needed to treat.

The ratio of the risk of an outcome in an exposed or treated group to the risk in an unexposed or control group. It indicates strength of association but not the size of absolute benefit.

The ratio of the odds of exposure among cases to the odds of exposure among controls, or of outcome odds between groups. It approximates relative risk when the outcome is rare.

A range of values within which the true population estimate is likely to lie, usually stated at 95 percent. Its width reflects precision and statistical uncertainty of a study result.

An analysis that includes all randomised participants in the groups to which they were assigned, regardless of adherence. It preserves randomisation and gives a pragmatic estimate of intervention effect.

A study in which participants are allocated by chance to intervention or control groups. Randomisation balances known and unknown confounders, making it the strongest design for assessing treatment efficacy.

An observational design that follows groups defined by exposure status over time and compares incidence of outcomes. It can establish temporal sequence and estimate relative risk directly.

An observational design that selects people with an outcome and comparable people without it, then looks back at past exposures. It is efficient for rare diseases but vulnerable to recall and selection bias.

Distortion of the estimated effect of an exposure on an outcome by a third factor associated with both. Randomisation, restriction, matching or statistical adjustment can reduce it.

Systematic error arising when the groups compared differ in ways related to both exposure and outcome, often because of how participants were recruited or retained. It threatens validity of observational and trial findings.

A structured synthesis that identifies, appraises and combines all relevant studies answering a focused question. When statistical pooling is used it becomes a meta-analysis and can inform guideline recommendations.

The tendency for studies with positive or statistically significant findings to be published and cited more readily than negative ones. It can exaggerate pooled effect estimates in reviews and meta-analyses.

A test applied to apparently healthy people to detect unrecognised disease early, when treatment is more effective. It requires a suitable condition, acceptable test and evidence that early detection improves outcomes.

Apparent improvement in survival after screening caused simply by earlier diagnosis, not by delayed death. It can make screening look beneficial even when the time of death is unchanged.

Overestimation of screening benefit because slow-growing, less aggressive disease stays detectable longer and is preferentially picked up. Such cases have better prognosis regardless of screening.

An approach that explores the patient's ideas, concerns and expectations, shares decisions and respects preferences within a continuing doctor-patient relationship. It is central to family medicine consultation and to shared management planning.

A collaborative process in which clinician and patient discuss options, benefits, harms and the patient's values before agreeing a plan. It is especially useful where evidence is equivocal or preferences vary.

A directive, patient-centred counselling style that helps people resolve ambivalence about behaviour change by eliciting and strengthening their own reasons for change. It is used for smoking, alcohol and lifestyle counselling.

A framework describing behaviour change as progression through precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action and maintenance, with possible relapse. Interventions are matched to the person's current stage.

The sustained relationship between a patient and a clinician or practice over time, providing accumulated knowledge and trust. It is associated with better preventive care, adherence and patient satisfaction in primary care.

The primary care function of acting as first point of contact and coordinating referrals to specialists. Effective gatekeeping aims to provide appropriate care in the community while limiting unnecessary secondary care use.

A multidisciplinary group, including doctors, nurses and allied health staff, that shares responsibility for a defined population's care. Teamwork supports chronic disease management and coordination across settings.

A framework for improving care of long-term conditions through delivery system design, decision support, clinical information systems, self-management support, community resources and health system organisation. It underpins structured primary care management.

An approach that considers biological, psychological and social factors together when understanding illness and planning management. It helps explain symptoms and disability that biomedical assessment alone does not account for.

A socially recognised status in which an ill person is exempted from normal duties but is expected to seek help and cooperate with recovery. It influences consultation behaviour and family expectations.

Physical symptoms that are distressing or disabling but not fully explained by organic disease, with associated health anxiety or help-seeking. Assessment should exclude treatable causes while avoiding unnecessary investigation.

The concurrent use of multiple medicines, often five or more, which increases risk of interactions and adverse drug events. Regular structured medication review is essential, especially in older adults with comorbidity.

The planned, supervised withdrawal of medicines that are no longer beneficial or are causing harm, guided by goals of care. It is a key component of medication review in multimorbidity and frailty.

A harmful or unintended response to a medicine used at normal doses, including predictable dose-related and unpredictable idiosyncratic reactions. It is a common reason for consultation and hospital admission in primary care.

The presence of two or more chronic conditions in the same person, often requiring coordinated management of competing priorities. Care should be individualised around function and patient goals rather than single-disease guidelines.

A state of reduced physiological reserve and increased vulnerability to stressors, often recognised by unintentional weight loss, exhaustion, weakness, slow gait and low activity. It informs prognosis and treatment intensity decisions.

An ongoing discussion in which a person records values, goals and preferences for future care, including treatments they would accept or refuse. It supports decision-making when the patient later lacks capacity.