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IB Psychology SL practice questions

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Question 1Biological approach to behaviour

Which brain-imaging technique measures changes in blood oxygenation to infer localized neural activity during a task?

  1. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
  2. Post-mortem dissection
  3. Electroencephalography (EEG)
  4. fMRI Correct answer.

Explanation

Functional MRI exploits the different magnetic properties of oxygenated and deoxygenated haemoglobin, producing the BOLD signal that indexes metabolic demand in active regions. This gives good spatial resolution, which is why it is widely used to localize functions such as language or emotion processing.

Question 2Biological approach to behaviour

A researcher finds that identical twins raised apart are more similar in a personality trait than fraternal twins raised apart. Which conclusion is best supported?

  1. Shared environment fully explains the trait
  2. Genetic factors contribute to variation in the trait Correct answer.
  3. Prenatal conditions are irrelevant to the trait
  4. The trait is determined entirely by a single gene

Explanation

Higher concordance in monozygotic than dizygotic twins, even when reared apart, indicates that inherited differences contribute to variation in the trait. Because the pairs differ in genetic relatedness while sharing similar rearing conditions, the comparison isolates a heritable component.

Question 3Biological approach to behaviour

Which structure is most closely associated with the formation and consolidation of new declarative memories?

  1. Hippocampus Correct answer.
  2. Medulla oblongata
  3. Corpus callosum
  4. Cerebellum

Explanation

The hippocampus is critical for encoding and consolidating declarative memories, as shown by case studies of patients with bilateral hippocampal damage who cannot form new episodic memories. The cerebellum is linked more to procedural learning and motor coordination.

Question 4Biological approach to behaviour

Which neurotransmitter is most directly implicated in the rewarding effects of addictive drugs such as cocaine?

  1. GABA
  2. Dopamine Correct answer.
  3. Serotonin
  4. Acetylcholine

Explanation

Drugs of abuse elevate dopamine signalling in mesolimbic reward pathways, and this increase is associated with reinforcement and craving. Dopamine's role in reward prediction makes it central to biological explanations of addiction.

Question 5Biological approach to behaviour

Localization of function is best illustrated by which finding?

  1. Neural connections reorganize after injury
  2. Damage to Broca's area produces effortful, non-fluent speech Correct answer.
  3. Removing one hemisphere leaves basic functions intact
  4. Brain activity increases during mental effort

Explanation

Localization claims that specific brain regions carry out specific functions, and the link between damage to a defined area and a specific language deficit supports this. The other findings concern plasticity, hemisphere function or general arousal rather than a one-to-one structure-function mapping.

Question 6Biological approach to behaviour

In the context of the biological approach, what does the term 'phenotype' refer to?

  1. The observable characteristics resulting from genotype and environment Correct answer.
  2. The complete set of genes an individual inherits
  3. The proportion of variation due to genetic factors
  4. A gene variant associated with a disorder

Explanation

Phenotype describes the expressed traits of an organism, produced by the interaction of inherited genotype with environmental influences. This distinction matters because the same genotype can yield different phenotypes under different conditions.

Question 7Biological approach to behaviour

Which hormone is released from the adrenal cortex and is commonly measured as a physiological index of stress?

  1. Testosterone
  2. Cortisol Correct answer.
  3. Oxytocin
  4. Insulin

Explanation

Cortisol is secreted by the adrenal cortex along the HPA axis and rises during stressful experiences, making it a standard biomarker in stress research. Its measurement in saliva or blood allows researchers to link psychological stressors to physiological change.

Question 8Biological approach to behaviour

Which technique uses magnetic pulses to temporarily disrupt activity in a targeted cortical region?

  1. Positron emission tomography
  2. Transcranial magnetic stimulation Correct answer.
  3. Functional magnetic resonance imaging
  4. Electroencephalography

Explanation

TMS induces a brief magnetic field that alters neural firing in a chosen cortical area, allowing researchers to test whether that region is necessary for a task. This gives causal rather than merely correlational evidence.

Question 9Biological approach to behaviour

A study reports that a gene variant is associated with depression, but the effect appears only in participants who experienced childhood adversity. Which concept does this best illustrate?

  1. Heritability of depression
  2. Localization of function
  3. Neuroplasticity
  4. Gene-environment interaction Correct answer.

Explanation

The effect of the gene depends on the presence of an environmental risk factor, which is the defining pattern of a gene-environment interaction. Neither factor alone produces the outcome, so the finding cannot be reduced to a simple genetic cause.

Question 10Biological approach to behaviour

A patient can speak fluently but produces sentences with little meaning and cannot understand others' speech. Damage to which area is most consistent with this profile?

  1. Wernicke's area Correct answer.
  2. Hippocampus
  3. Broca's area
  4. Primary motor cortex

Explanation

Wernicke's area supports language comprehension, so damage produces fluent but meaningless speech with impaired understanding, known as receptive aphasia. Broca's area damage instead produces effortful, telegraphic output with relatively preserved comprehension.

Question 11Biological approach to behaviour

Which statement best describes neural plasticity?

  1. Each brain region is fixed to one function from birth
  2. Brain activity can be recorded using electrodes on the scalp
  3. The brain can reorganize its connections in response to experience or injury Correct answer.
  4. Neurotransmitters are recycled at the synaptic cleft

Explanation

Plasticity refers to the brain's capacity to change its synaptic organization through experience, learning or recovery from damage. It is a key counterpoint to strict localization, because it shows that function is not entirely fixed to particular areas.

Question 12Biological approach to behaviour

Why do researchers use animal models when studying the biological basis of behaviour?

  1. They guarantee that findings generalize to humans
  2. They eliminate the need for ethical approval
  3. They permit controlled manipulation of variables such as genes and brain lesions Correct answer.
  4. They avoid the need for a control group

Explanation

Animal models allow invasive procedures, such as lesioning a specific structure or knocking out a gene, that would be unethical in humans, and they allow strict control of rearing conditions. Generalization to humans must still be argued rather than assumed.

Question 13Biological approach to behaviour

An MRI comparison shows that London taxi drivers have greater grey-matter volume in the posterior hippocampus than control participants. Which interpretation is most cautious?

  1. Hippocampal size is fixed and determines career choice
  2. Navigation skill is unrelated to hippocampal structure
  3. Hippocampal volume correlates with navigation experience, but causality is uncertain Correct answer.
  4. Driving a taxi causes growth of the posterior hippocampus

Explanation

A cross-sectional correlation cannot establish whether experience changed the brain or whether pre-existing differences led people into the profession, so causal language is unjustified. The finding is consistent with plasticity but does not prove it on its own.

Question 14Biological approach to behaviour

A PET scan uses a radioactive tracer to image brain function. What is a key limitation of this method?

  1. It requires participants to be unconscious
  2. It cannot produce images of living tissue
  3. It measures only electrical activity of single neurons
  4. It involves exposure to ionizing radiation and has limited temporal resolution Correct answer.

Explanation

PET requires injecting a radiotracer, which raises ethical concerns about radiation exposure, and its temporal resolution is weaker than EEG. These constraints affect sample selection and study design, especially with children or repeated testing.

Question 15Biological approach to behaviour

Which explanation of aggression is most consistent with the biological approach?

  1. Low serotonin activity is associated with increased impulsive aggression Correct answer.
  2. Aggression results from frustration when goals are blocked
  3. Aggression is maintained by reinforcement contingencies
  4. Aggression is learned through observation of role models

Explanation

The biological approach explains behaviour through physiological mechanisms, and evidence linking reduced serotonergic function to impulsive aggression fits this framework. The other options describe social learning, frustration-aggression and operant explanations, which are psychological rather than biological.

Question 16Biological approach to behaviour

A researcher wants to establish whether a specific brain region is necessary for a cognitive task. Which method provides the strongest causal evidence?

  1. Interviewing patients about their subjective experience
  2. Measuring hormone levels before and after the task
  3. Lesioning or temporarily disrupting the region and observing task performance Correct answer.
  4. Correlating task performance with activity in that region

Explanation

Manipulating the region and observing the effect on performance supports a causal claim, because the researcher actively changes the variable rather than merely observing co-occurrence. Correlational imaging shows association, which is compatible with several explanations.

Question 17Biological approach to behaviour

Which statement about the HPA axis is accurate?

  1. Hypothalamic signals lead to cortisol release from the adrenal cortex Correct answer.
  2. Cortisol is produced by the pituitary gland
  3. The HPA axis suppresses adrenaline production during stress
  4. The adrenal medulla releases cortisol directly into the synapse

Explanation

The hypothalamus releases CRH, prompting the pituitary to release ACTH, which stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol. This cascade is slower than the sympathetic-adrenal route but produces sustained hormonal effects.

Question 18Biological approach to behaviour

Which finding would most directly challenge the claim that a function is strictly localized to one brain region?

  1. Similar activity in that region across participants
  2. Recovery of the function after damage to that region Correct answer.
  3. Anatomical description of that region in an atlas
  4. Increased activity in that region during the task

Explanation

Strict localization implies that destroying a region should permanently abolish its function, so substantial recovery after damage indicates that other areas can take over. This supports plasticity and a more distributed view of function.

Question 19Biological approach to behaviour

Which is the best example of an evolutionary explanation for a behaviour?

  1. Males compete because of activity in the amygdala
  2. Males compete because testosterone rises during competition
  3. Males compete for status because such competition historically increased reproductive success Correct answer.
  4. Males compete because peers reward dominance displays

Explanation

An evolutionary explanation appeals to selection pressures and reproductive fitness over ancestral environments. The other options describe proximate hormonal, social or neural mechanisms that explain how the behaviour occurs rather than why it was selected.

Question 20Biological approach to behaviour

A twin study reports a heritability estimate of 0.60 for a trait. What does this value mean?

  1. 60% of the variance in the trait within that population is associated with genetic differences Correct answer.
  2. The trait is 60% more common in identical twins than in the general population
  3. 60% of the population possesses the relevant gene
  4. 60% of each individual's trait is caused by genes

Explanation

Heritability is a population statistic describing the share of phenotypic variance attributable to genetic variance in a given environment. It does not partition an individual's trait into genetic and environmental portions, and it can change if environments change.

Question 21Biological approach to behaviour

Two studies link a neurotransmitter to a behaviour, but both measure neurotransmitter metabolites in cerebrospinal fluid rather than synaptic activity. Why is this a limitation?

  1. Cerebrospinal fluid cannot be sampled from living humans
  2. Metabolite levels are an indirect and temporally distant index of synaptic neurotransmitter activity Correct answer.
  3. Metabolites are unrelated to neurotransmitter release
  4. Cerebrospinal fluid sampling measures electrical activity directly

Explanation

Metabolite concentrations reflect breakdown products accumulated over time and do not map precisely onto synaptic release at the moment of behaviour. The inference from metabolite to synaptic activity therefore involves assumptions that weaken causal claims.

Question 22Biological approach to behaviour

A researcher claims that a brain-imaging study proves adolescents cannot control impulsive behaviour because their prefrontal cortex is immature. Which criticism is most valid?

  1. Imaging cannot measure brain structure in adolescents
  2. Group-level imaging data cannot establish a deterministic limit on any individual's capacity for control Correct answer.
  3. Prefrontal cortex immaturity has never been observed in imaging studies
  4. Impulsivity is unrelated to any biological factor

Explanation

Average differences between age groups describe populations and cannot justify claims about the fixed capacity of a particular individual, especially when behaviour also varies with context and experience. The argument commits an ecological or group-to-individual inferential error.

Question 23Biological approach to behaviour

Which design would best test whether a specific gene influences a behaviour while controlling for shared family environment?

  1. Comparing monozygotic twins reared apart with dizygotic twins reared apart Correct answer.
  2. Surveying one large family across three generations
  3. Measuring the behaviour in a single pair of identical twins
  4. Comparing adopted children with their biological siblings only

Explanation

Monozygotic and dizygotic pairs reared apart differ in genetic relatedness while sharing broadly similar environments, so a greater similarity in monozygotic pairs points to genetic influence. Designs without a comparison group cannot separate genetic from environmental contributions.

Question 24Biological approach to behaviour

Why is the concept of 'neural correlates' rather than 'neural causes' often used when interpreting fMRI findings?

  1. Brain regions never contribute to behaviour
  2. fMRI cannot detect activity in cortical regions
  3. fMRI measures electrical potentials rather than blood flow
  4. Activation shows co-occurrence with a task and does not by itself demonstrate that the region produces the behaviour Correct answer.

Explanation

BOLD activation indicates that a region is engaged during a task, but engagement may reflect a consequence of the process rather than its cause. Establishing causation requires manipulation, such as lesions or TMS, or convergent evidence from several methods.

Question 25Biological approach to behaviour

A researcher finds that administering a serotonin reuptake inhibitor reduces aggressive behaviour in a sample. Which conclusion is best supported?

  1. The drug effect proves aggression is inherited
  2. Aggression is entirely learned rather than biological
  3. Serotonergic activity may modulate aggression, though other mechanisms could contribute Correct answer.
  4. Serotonin deficiency is the sole cause of aggression

Explanation

A drug effect is consistent with serotonergic involvement in aggression, but the drug also alters other systems and the design cannot rule out alternative explanations. The cautious conclusion is that serotonin may modulate aggression rather than being its sole cause.

Question 26Biological approach to behaviour

Which structure forms the main link between the nervous system and the endocrine system by controlling hormone release from the pituitary gland?

  1. The hypothalamus Correct answer.
  2. The medulla oblongata
  3. The corpus callosum
  4. The cerebellum

Explanation

The hypothalamus sits below the thalamus and regulates the pituitary gland, which in turn governs other endocrine glands. This makes it the key interface through which neural signals influence hormonal activity.

Question 27Biological approach to behaviour

Which part of the neuron receives incoming signals from other neurons across synapses?

  1. The myelin sheath
  2. The dendrite Correct answer.
  3. The axon hillock
  4. The axon terminal

Explanation

Dendrites are branching extensions that carry receptor sites and receive neurotransmitter signals from presynaptic neurons. The signal is then integrated and, if threshold is reached, passed along the axon.

Question 28Biological approach to behaviour

In the biological approach, what does the term 'genotype' refer to?

  1. The environmental influences that shape development after birth
  2. The set of hormones circulating during a stressful episode
  3. The observable physical and behavioural traits of an organism
  4. The genetic makeup an individual inherits from their parents Correct answer.

Explanation

Genotype is the inherited genetic constitution of an organism, whereas phenotype is its expressed characteristics. The distinction matters because the same genotype can produce different phenotypes depending on environment.

Question 29Biological approach to behaviour

Which brain-imaging technique measures changes in blood oxygenation to infer localized brain activity?

  1. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
  2. Post-mortem dissection
  3. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Correct answer.
  4. Electroencephalography (EEG)

Explanation

fMRI exploits differences in the magnetic properties of oxygenated and deoxygenated haemoglobin, producing the BOLD signal used to infer activity. It offers good spatial resolution but poor temporal resolution.

Question 30Biological approach to behaviour

Which neurotransmitter is most closely associated with reward processing and is the target of drugs such as cocaine and amphetamines?

  1. Glutamate
  2. GABA
  3. Acetylcholine
  4. Dopamine Correct answer.

Explanation

Dopamine pathways, particularly the mesolimbic pathway, are central to reward and motivation. Drugs of abuse such as cocaine increase dopamine availability in these circuits.

Question 31Biological approach to behaviour

Which statement best describes the function of the myelin sheath?

  1. It insulates the axon and increases the speed of impulse conduction Correct answer.
  2. It filters toxins from the blood before they reach neurons
  3. It releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft
  4. It stores genetic information within the cell nucleus

Explanation

Myelin is a fatty layer formed by glial cells that insulates axons and enables saltatory conduction, greatly increasing speed. Loss of myelin, as in multiple sclerosis, slows or disrupts neural transmission.

Question 32Biological approach to behaviour

Which of the following is the best example of a 'knockout' procedure in biological research on behaviour?

  1. Comparing monozygotic and dizygotic twins on a behavioural measure
  2. Recording electrical activity from the scalp during a task
  3. Temporarily disrupting cortical activity with magnetic pulses
  4. Removing a specific gene so that it is not expressed in a laboratory animal Correct answer.

Explanation

A knockout procedure inactivates a targeted gene, allowing researchers to observe the behavioural consequences of its absence. This provides causal evidence that is difficult to obtain in human studies.

Question 33Biological approach to behaviour

A researcher finds that both monozygotic and dizygotic twin pairs raised together show similar correlations for a trait. Which conclusion is most justified?

  1. Shared environment rather than genes may largely explain the trait Correct answer.
  2. The trait is caused by a neurotransmitter imbalance
  3. The trait is strongly heritable because twins were compared
  4. The trait is entirely determined by a single gene

Explanation

If identical twins are not more similar than fraternal twins, genetic differences cannot explain the similarity; shared environment becomes the more plausible explanation. Heritability estimates depend on MZ twins being more concordant than DZ twins.

Question 34Biological approach to behaviour

Which statement about the role of cortisol in the stress response is accurate?

  1. Cortisol is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that reduces arousal during stress
  2. Cortisol is released immediately from the pituitary gland and acts only on the brain
  3. Cortisol is released from the adrenal cortex following HPA-axis activation and mobilizes energy resources Correct answer.
  4. Cortisol is produced only during chronic stress and is absent in acute stress

Explanation

Cortisol is a glucocorticoid secreted by the adrenal cortex after ACTH from the pituitary stimulates it. It raises blood glucose and supports sustained physiological response to stressors.

Question 35Biological approach to behaviour

A patient shows intact comprehension but halting, non-fluent speech after a stroke. Which area is most likely damaged?

  1. The somatosensory cortex
  2. The occipital lobe
  3. Broca's area Correct answer.
  4. Wernicke's area

Explanation

Broca's area in the left frontal lobe supports speech production, so damage produces non-fluent output with relatively preserved comprehension. Wernicke's area damage instead impairs comprehension.

Question 36Biological approach to behaviour

Which finding would most strongly support the claim that a behaviour has a genetic basis?

  1. The behaviour increases after administration of a hormone
  2. The behaviour is more concordant in monozygotic twins than in dizygotic twins Correct answer.
  3. The behaviour correlates with activity in a specific brain region
  4. The behaviour is more common in urban than in rural populations

Explanation

Greater concordance in identical twins, who share all their genes, than in fraternal twins points to genetic influence. The other findings are consistent with environmental, hormonal, or neural explanations that do not isolate genetic effects.

Question 37Biological approach to behaviour

Which method provides the strongest causal evidence that a brain region is necessary for a particular behaviour?

  1. Recording EEG activity from that region during the task
  2. Describing a case study of a patient with damage to that region
  3. Lesioning the region in an animal and observing the behaviour Correct answer.
  4. Correlating behaviour scores with fMRI activation in that region

Explanation

Experimental lesioning manipulates the region directly and observes the effect on behaviour, which supports causal inference. Correlational imaging and single case studies cannot rule out alternative explanations.

Question 38Biological approach to behaviour

Which statement best captures the concept of localization of function?

  1. Behaviour is determined entirely by hormones rather than the brain
  2. Brain function can be understood only through genetic analysis
  3. All brain regions contribute equally to every behaviour
  4. Specific brain structures are specialised for particular functions Correct answer.

Explanation

Localization of function holds that distinct structures support distinct functions, as shown by cases such as Broca's and Wernicke's aphasias. Modern views accept localization alongside distributed networks.

Question 39Biological approach to behaviour

An adopted child's behaviour correlates more strongly with the biological parents than with the adoptive parents. Which interpretation is most consistent with the biological approach?

  1. Genetic factors are likely to contribute to the behaviour Correct answer.
  2. The behaviour is caused by an imbalance in the adoptive home
  3. The behaviour is learned through imitation of adoptive parents
  4. Shared family environment is the main influence

Explanation

Adoption designs separate genetic from rearing effects; stronger resemblance to biological parents suggests genetic contribution. Resemblance to adoptive parents would instead implicate shared environment.

Question 40Biological approach to behaviour

Which statement about neural networks and distributed processing is most accurate?

  1. Neural networks are unrelated to the concept of plasticity
  2. Distributed processing applies only to sensory functions
  3. Each behaviour is controlled by exactly one cortical module
  4. Complex behaviours typically depend on coordinated activity across multiple interacting regions Correct answer.

Explanation

Contemporary neuroscience views complex behaviours as emerging from interactions among many regions rather than single centres. This complements localization by acknowledging that functions are supported by networks.

Question 41Biological approach to behaviour

A drug blocks reuptake of a neurotransmitter, increasing its concentration in the synaptic cleft. Which effect on postsynaptic activity is most likely?

  1. Increased postsynaptic stimulation Correct answer.
  2. Immediate destruction of the postsynaptic receptors
  3. Complete cessation of action potentials in the presynaptic neuron
  4. Reduced postsynaptic stimulation

Explanation

Blocking reuptake leaves more neurotransmitter in the cleft to bind postsynaptic receptors, prolonging and strengthening signalling. This is the mechanism of action of selective reuptake inhibitors.

Question 42Biological approach to behaviour

Which of the following best illustrates the concept of an evolutionary explanation of behaviour?

  1. A behaviour is explained by the hormone levels measured at the time
  2. A behaviour is explained by the specific brain region that activates during it
  3. A behaviour is explained by the genes identified in a genome-wide association study
  4. A behaviour is explained by its contribution to survival and reproductive success in ancestral environments Correct answer.

Explanation

Evolutionary explanations appeal to adaptive function and natural selection, proposing that a behaviour increased fitness in ancestral environments. They are distinct from proximate neural, hormonal, or genetic accounts.

Question 43Biological approach to behaviour

A researcher reports that a brain region is 'activated' during a task. Which limitation most directly affects the interpretation of this finding?

  1. Imaging produces no numerical data for analysis
  2. Imaging cannot measure activity in cortical regions
  3. Imaging shows correlation between activity and task performance rather than proof that the region causes the behaviour Correct answer.
  4. Imaging can only be conducted on deceased participants

Explanation

Functional imaging reveals regions active during a task but does not establish that the activity produces the behaviour. This is why researchers speak of neural correlates rather than causes.

Question 44Biological approach to behaviour

Which statement best explains why heritability estimates are population-specific?

  1. Heritability is calculated only from animal breeding studies
  2. Heritability reflects the proportion of variance in a trait attributable to genetic differences within a given population and environment Correct answer.
  3. Heritability measures the percentage of an individual's trait caused by genes
  4. Heritability is a fixed property of a gene that does not depend on the environment

Explanation

Heritability describes the share of trait variance in a specific population under specific environmental conditions. Because environments and gene pools differ, estimates cannot be generalised across populations.

Question 45Biological approach to behaviour

A study finds that people with a particular gene variant show altered amygdala reactivity to threatening faces. Which conclusion is best supported?

  1. The environment has no role in amygdala reactivity
  2. Amygdala reactivity is unrelated to emotional processing
  3. The gene variant is associated with a neural correlate of threat processing Correct answer.
  4. The gene variant directly causes fear-related disorders

Explanation

The finding links a genetic variant to a neural response pattern, which is an association with a correlate rather than proof of causation of disorder. Intermediate phenotypes of this kind help explain how genes may influence behaviour.

Question 46Biological approach to behaviour

Which design best separates the effects of genetic relatedness from those of being raised in the same home?

  1. Comparing people of different ages on a single occasion
  2. Comparing adopted children with their biological and adoptive parents Correct answer.
  3. Comparing monozygotic twins raised together
  4. Comparing two groups given different drug treatments

Explanation

Adoption studies break the confound between genes and rearing environment because adopted children share genes with one set of parents and environment with another. This allows the two influences to be estimated separately.

Question 47Biological approach to behaviour

A lesion study in rats shows that damaging a region impairs a behaviour, but the damage also severs fibres passing through the region. What is the main threat to the conclusion?

  1. The study lacked a control group of any kind
  2. The lesion may have increased the rats' motivation
  3. The behaviour may be affected by interrupted fibres rather than by the region's own neurons Correct answer.
  4. The rats may have learned the task too quickly

Explanation

Passing fibres can be damaged alongside cell bodies, so behavioural deficits cannot be attributed confidently to the target region's neurons. This is why techniques such as excitotoxic lesions, which spare fibres of passage, are used.

Question 48Biological approach to behaviour

Which argument best explains why findings from animal models of human behaviour must be generalised with caution?

  1. Animal studies cannot include control groups
  2. Species differ in brain organisation, physiology, and behavioural repertoires Correct answer.
  3. Animals cannot be studied using experimental methods
  4. Animal research is always correlational in design

Explanation

Homologies exist, but differences in neuroanatomy, metabolism, and behaviour limit direct extrapolation to humans. Animal models are valuable for causal manipulation yet require careful interpretation across species.

Question 49Biological approach to behaviour

A researcher claims that low serotonin 'causes' aggression because aggressive patients have lower serotonin metabolites. Which criticism is most appropriate?

  1. Aggression cannot be studied scientifically
  2. Metabolites cannot be measured in humans
  3. Serotonin has no role in any behaviour
  4. Metabolite levels in blood or cerebrospinal fluid are only indirect indices, and the design is correlational Correct answer.

Explanation

Peripheral metabolite levels are indirect proxies for central neurotransmitter activity, and cross-sectional correlations cannot establish causation. A causal claim would require manipulation or longitudinal evidence.

Question 50Biological approach to behaviour

Which brain structure is most closely associated with the formation of new declarative memories, as shown by the case of patient H.M.?

  1. The hippocampus Correct answer.
  2. The corpus callosum
  3. The cerebellum
  4. The medulla oblongata

Explanation

The hippocampus is critical for consolidating new explicit or declarative memories. After bilateral hippocampal damage, H.M. could not form new factual memories although his procedural learning and older memories were largely intact.