ICMA-CM flashcards

34 cards. Read the term and the definition here. The deck at the top of this page is optional.

Span of control

The number of subordinates reporting directly to one manager. Narrow spans create tall hierarchies with close supervision; wide spans create flat structures that require more delegation and stronger subordinate capability.

Situational leadership

Hersey-Blanchard model matching leader style to follower readiness: telling for low readiness, selling for moderate-low, participating for moderate-high, and delegating for high readiness.

Theory X and Theory Y

McGregor's contrasting assumptions: Theory X holds that workers avoid responsibility and need control; Theory Y holds that workers seek responsibility and self-direction, shaping how managers supervise.

Delegation accountability rule

Delegation transfers authority and responsibility for a task, but the delegating manager retains ultimate accountability. Authority granted without resources or clear scope is the most common cause of failure.

Mission versus vision

A mission states the organization's present purpose and scope, while a vision describes the desired future state. Confusing them produces goals without strategic direction.

SMART objectives

Objectives that are Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound. An objective missing measurability or a deadline cannot be controlled or cascaded into unit targets.

Porter generic strategies

Cost leadership, differentiation, and focus (cost or differentiation focus). An organization that pursues none of them risks being stuck in the middle with below-average returns.

Balanced Scorecard perspectives

Four linked perspectives: financial, customer, internal process, and learning and growth. Leading operational measures balance lagging financial results so strategy is tracked before outcomes appear.

Break-even point

The sales volume at which total revenue equals total cost. In units it equals fixed costs divided by contribution margin per unit; in dollars, fixed costs divided by the contribution margin ratio.

Contribution margin

Sales revenue minus variable costs. Per unit it equals price minus variable cost per unit; the contribution margin ratio equals contribution margin divided by sales and drives break-even calculations.

Favorable versus unfavorable variance

A variance is favorable when actual revenue exceeds budget or actual cost falls below budget. It is unfavorable in the reverse direction, regardless of whether the underlying cause was controllable.

Net present value

The sum of discounted future cash flows minus the initial investment. A positive NPV adds value at the required rate; IRR is the discount rate at which NPV equals zero.

Job description versus specification

Job analysis produces two documents: the job description lists duties and responsibilities, while the job specification lists qualifications, skills, and experience required to perform the role.

Kirkpatrick evaluation levels

Four training evaluation levels: reaction (participant response), learning (knowledge gained), behavior (on-the-job application), and results (business outcomes). Each level requires different measurement methods.

Progressive discipline

An escalating sequence from verbal warning to written warning to suspension to termination. Documentation and consistent application across similar cases are the core controls that make it defensible.

Nine-box grid

A talent tool plotting employee performance against potential in a three-by-three matrix. It targets development, retention, and succession decisions toward high-potential and high-performing employees.

Little's Law

Work-in-process equals throughput multiplied by flow time. It links inventory, cycle time, and output rate, so reducing flow time or inventory changes throughput predictably in a stable process.

Bottleneck capacity rule

Process capacity equals one divided by the bottleneck's cycle time. Improving any non-bottleneck step does not raise total system throughput until the constraint itself is relieved.

DMAIC phases

Six Sigma's Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control sequence. Six sigma performance corresponds to roughly 3.4 defects per million opportunities, with control sustaining the gains.

Common versus special cause variation

Common-cause variation is inherent in the process and requires redesign; special-cause variation is attributable to a specific event and should be investigated immediately. Control limits sit at plus or minus three sigma.

Channel richness

The capacity of a communication channel to convey cues and enable feedback. Face-to-face ranks highest, then video, phone, email, and written memos; ambiguous messages require richer channels.

Thomas-Kilmann conflict modes

Five conflict-handling modes: competing, collaborating, compromising, avoiding, and accommodating. Collaborating suits high-stakes issues where both parties' concerns matter and time permits.

Active listening behaviors

Paraphrasing content, reflecting feeling, asking open questions, summarizing, and withholding judgment until the speaker finishes. These behaviors confirm understanding and reduce miscommunication.

High-context versus low-context

High-context cultures rely on implicit cues, relationships, and shared history; low-context cultures rely on explicit written and spoken detail. Mismatches cause misinterpretation in cross-cultural teams.

Fraud triangle

Three conditions enabling fraud: pressure or incentive, opportunity, and rationalization. Internal controls most directly reduce opportunity, making it the primary prevention lever for organizations.

Segregation of duties

An internal control separating authorization, custody of assets, recording, and reconciliation so no single person controls a transaction end to end. It is a primary fraud-prevention control.

Conflict of interest recusal

When a decision-maker has a personal financial or family interest in an outcome, the interest must be disclosed and the person must withdraw from the decision to preserve objectivity.

Code of conduct versus ethics

A code of conduct specifies required and prohibited behaviors with enforceable rules; a code of ethics states guiding values and principles. Both need training, enforcement, and a reporting channel.

Risk response strategies

Four standard responses: avoid the risk, reduce or mitigate it, transfer it through insurance or contracts, or accept it with a reserve. Residual risk remains after the response is applied.

Risk score

Likelihood multiplied by impact, used to rank risks on a heat map. Scores drive prioritization and determine whether a risk falls above or below the organization's tolerance threshold.

Escalation of commitment

Persisting with a failing course of action because of resources already spent. Sunk costs are unrecoverable, so decisions should rest only on future costs and benefits.

ADKAR model

A sequence for individual change: Awareness, Desire, Knowledge, Ability, and Reinforcement. Organizational results follow only after individuals progress through all five elements in order.

Kotter eight-step change model

Steps from creating urgency and a coalition through vision, communication, empowerment, short-term wins, and consolidation to anchoring change in culture. Skipping early steps undermines adoption.

Diffusion of innovations

Adopter categories: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards. Crossing to the early majority is the threshold that determines whether an innovation achieves mainstream adoption.