LC English key terms

The degree of formality in language, shaped by audience and purpose. A personal essay may mix colloquial and formal registers; a speech or official letter usually keeps one consistent, appropriate level.

The reader the piece is written for and the effect the writer wants to achieve. Naming both before drafting guides choices of tone, structure, vocabulary and level of detail.

Dividing prose into units, each developing one idea or stage of an argument. In Paper 1, clear topic sentences and deliberate one-line paragraphs for emphasis are credited; wall-to-wall text is penalised.

The opening sentence of a paragraph that states its controlling idea. It lets an examiner see your structure at a glance and keeps the rest of the paragraph from drifting.

Coherence is the logical linking of ideas; cohesion is the surface linking through connectives, pronouns and repetition. Strong answers have both, so an argument reads as one continuous piece rather than a list.

Words and phrases that signal relationships between ideas, such as 'however', 'moreover', 'in contrast' or 'ultimately'. Use them sparingly and accurately; overuse or misplacement weakens clarity.

A question asked for effect rather than an answer, used to engage readers or push them towards agreement. Effective in persuasive and speech-style pieces when not clustered together.

Devices used to influence a reader: direct address, triadic lists, emotive language, anecdote, statistics, rhetorical questions, irony. Named and used deliberately, they earn marks for style in Paper 1.

The attitude conveyed by the writing, such as wry, urgent, nostalgic or indignant. It is created through word choice, sentence length and rhythm, and should suit the chosen genre and audience.

The distinctive personality behind the writing, produced by diction, rhythm and stance. In Paper 1 a confident, consistent voice is rewarded; a flat imitation of exam-speak is not.

A writer's choice of words. Precise, varied and apt diction is a chief mark of good composition; vague or repetitive vocabulary flattens meaning and costs marks in clarity of expression.

A reflective piece drawing on the writer's own experience and observations, usually with a loose narrative thread. It rewards honest detail, a clear viewpoint and a shaped ending rather than a moralising summary.

A brief narrative with a compressed plot, limited characters and a turning point or epiphany. In Paper 1, economy matters: begin close to the action and avoid an overlong build-up.

The shape of a story: setup, complication, climax and resolution. Even a short composition needs some movement or tension, otherwise it reads as an anecdote with no point.

Conveying emotion or character through concrete detail, action and dialogue rather than naming the feeling. 'Her hands shook as she folded the letter' shows anxiety; 'she was anxious' merely tells.

Specific images appealing to sight, sound, smell, taste and touch. They make descriptive and narrative writing vivid and are a quick way to lift a composition above the generic.

Using punctuation deliberately, for example a dash for interruption, a semicolon for balance, ellipsis for trailing off. Correct and purposeful use is assessed under clarity of expression.

The final pass checking spelling, grammar, agreement and punctuation before submission. Reserve several minutes for it; recurring errors such as comma splices or tense slips lower the overall language mark.

An unseen extract on which Paper 1 questions are set. Read it twice: once for gist, once tracking the question areas, and mark line references as you go.

Selecting only the information a question asks for and stating it in your own words. Marks are awarded per valid point, so a short, precise answer beats a long paraphrase of the whole paragraph.

Drawing a conclusion not stated directly but supported by evidence in the text. Answers must be anchored in a specific detail; a guess with no textual basis earns nothing.

Restating the passage's meaning using your own vocabulary and sentence structure. Lifting long phrases usually forfeits marks; change both wording and syntax while keeping the sense intact.

Supporting an answer with a short, exact quotation or line reference. Keep quotations brief and integrate them into your sentence rather than dropping them in unconnected.

Words that signal reasoning and stance, such as 'therefore', 'consequently', 'concede', 'assert' or 'refute'. Recognising them helps you track a writer's logic in comprehension and use it in your own essays.

Practical formats such as letters, reports, reviews, articles, speeches, diary entries and blog posts. Each has conventions of layout, salutation and register that examiners expect to see observed.

A letter to an authority or organisation: sender's address, date, receiver's address, salutation, subject line where appropriate, structured body paragraphs and a formal sign-off. Tone stays courteous even when complaining.

An evaluative piece on a book, film, album or event. It needs a brief summary, a judgement supported by specific reasons, and a recommendation; avoid retelling the entire plot.

A spoken address written for delivery, using direct address, short sentences, repetition and rhetorical questions. Layout conventions such as a greeting to the audience should be visible on the page.

The one major text studied in depth for Paper 2, such as a Shakespeare play, a novel or a film. Questions test knowledge, analysis and personal response rather than plot summary.

How a writer builds and reveals character: through action, dialogue, description, contrast with others and what characters say about one another. Discuss technique, not just personality traits.

A central idea explored in a text, such as loyalty, power or loss. Strong answers trace how the theme develops across the whole text and cite specific moments as evidence.

A pivotal scene or passage that changes the direction of a text or reveals character. Learn a few in detail, with quotations, so you can adapt them to whatever question appears.

The Paper 2 section comparing at least two texts under a mode such as theme, relationships or social setting. Answers must move between texts constantly rather than treating them one after the other.

The broad lens named in a comparative question, such as theme, cultural context, relationships or setting. Identify it precisely, since an answer on the wrong mode cannot score well however good it is.

A specific shared feature used to link the texts, for example how both treat ambition or family loyalty. Each paragraph should make one clear point and support it from both texts.

A meaningful connection drawn between two texts, whether similarity or contrast. The strongest links are analytical, explaining what the difference reveals, not merely noting that both texts mention something.

The overall shape of a poem, such as sonnet, ballad, free verse or villanelle. Form carries meaning: a rigid sonnet about confinement, for instance, invites comment on the tension between shape and subject.

The grouping and ending of lines, which control pace and emphasis. A short final line or a break mid-phrase can isolate an image or create suspense worth discussing.

Running a sentence past the end of a line so the sense continues into the next. It speeds the reading and can mirror restlessness or overflow; its opposite is the end-stopped line.

A pause within a line, often created by punctuation. It can slow a poem, isolate a word or dramatise hesitation, and is worth naming when discussing rhythm and emphasis.

The patterned arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables, such as iambic pentameter. You need not scan every line, but you should recognise when a regular beat breaks and why.

Descriptive language appealing to the senses, often through comparison. Identify the image, then explain the association it creates and how it shapes the reader's response to the subject.

Two figures of comparison: a simile uses 'like' or 'as', a metaphor states one thing is another. Always explain the effect of the comparison rather than merely labelling it.

Giving human qualities to non-human things, as in a 'grieving' wind. It can make a setting feel alive or sympathetic, and is often used to reflect a speaker's emotional state.

Effects created by sound, including alliteration, assonance, sibilance and onomatopoeia. They shape pace and mood, and should be linked to meaning rather than listed mechanically.

The pattern of end rhymes, usually labelled with letters such as ABAB or ABBA. Note where the pattern is broken, since an unexpected rhyme or its absence often signals a shift in tone.