APPSC AO cheat sheet

Andhra Pradesh was reorganised on 2 June 2014 under the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014; Hyderabad served as joint capital for up to 10 years.

Article 371-D of the Constitution provides special provisions for Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, including local-cadre reservation in public employment and education.

The Governor of AP is appointed by the President under Article 155 and holds office during the pleasure of the President (Article 156).

Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly has 175 elected seats; the Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad) is a permanent body with one-third of members retiring every two years.

Key state symbols: State animal - Blackbuck; State bird - Rose-ringed parakeet (Palapitta); State tree - Neem; State flower - Jasmine (Malli).

The Krishna and Godavari are the two major perennial rivers of AP; the Polavaram project on the Godavari is a national project under the AP Reorganisation Act.

AP shares boundaries with Odisha (north), Chhattisgarh and Telangana (north-west), Karnataka (west), Tamil Nadu (south) and the Bay of Bengal (east).

Current affairs questions often test recently launched central schemes, appointments to constitutional posts, and awards; verify the year of any scheme before answering.

Subject-verb agreement: a singular subject takes a singular verb; phrases between subject and verb do not change the number (e.g., 'The list of items is long').

Articles: 'a' before consonant sounds, 'an' before vowel sounds; 'the' for specific or unique references.

Prepositions of time: 'in' for months/years, 'on' for days/dates, 'at' for exact times.

Direct to indirect speech: change pronouns to match the reporter, shift tense one step back, and change time/place words (now → then, here → there).

Active to passive: object becomes subject, verb becomes 'be + past participle', and the agent is introduced by 'by'.

Common error traps: 'one of the' takes a plural noun but a singular verb; 'each/every/either/neither' take singular verbs.

Idioms are tested literally; e.g., 'to bite the bullet' means to endure a difficult situation bravely, not a physical action.

Reading comprehension: locate the main idea in the first or last sentence of a paragraph; answer only from the passage, not from outside knowledge.

తెలుగు వర్ణమాలలో 56 అక్షరాలు: 16 అచ్చులు (అ నుండి ఔ వరకు) మరియు 40 హల్లులు (క నుండి ఱ వరకు).

సంధి అనగా రెండు అక్షరముల కలయిక; ప్రధాన సంధులు: అకార సంధి, ఇకార సంధి, ఉకార సంధి, యడాగమ సంధి, త్రిక సంధి.

సమాసాలు: తత్పురుష, కర్మధారయ, ద్వంద్వ, ద్విగు, బహువ్రీహి - ఉదా. 'తల్లిదండ్రులు' ద్వంద్వ సమాసం.

ఛందస్సులో ప్రధాన గణములు: యగణం (I), రగణం (U I), తగణం (U U), భగణం (U), నగణం (I I I), సగణం (I I U), మగణం (I I I), లగణం (I).

ఆటవెలది, తేటగీతి, కందం, శార్దూలం, మత్తేభం ప్రధాన తెలుగు ఛందస్సు రూపాలు; కందం పాదంలో 4 గణాలు ఉంటాయి.

అలంకారాలు: ఉపమాలంకారం (పోలిక), రూపకాలంకారం (అభేదం), అతిశయోక్తి (పెంపు), శ్లేష (ఒకే పదానికి అనేక అర్థాలు).

ప్రసిద్ధ తెలుగు కవులు: నన్నయ (ఆదికవి), తిక్కన, ఎర్రన (కవిత్రయం); శ్రీనాథుడు (కవిసార్వభౌముడు); పోతన (భాగవత రచయిత).

వ్యుత్పత్తి, ప్రత్యయం, విభక్తులు, క్రియలు, కర్తరి-కర్మణి వాక్య నిర్మాణం తెలుగు వ్యాకరణ ప్రశ్నలలో ముఖ్యమైన అంశాలు.

Percentage change: change % = (new − old)/old × 100; successive percentage changes a and b combine to a + b + ab/100.

Simple interest = P × R × T / 100; Compound interest = P[(1 + R/100)^T − 1].

Profit/loss: SP = CP × (100 + P%)/100; when two articles are sold at equal prices with equal profit and loss percentages, there is always a net loss.

Speed, time, distance: D = S × T; to convert km/h to m/s multiply by 5/18, and m/s to km/h multiply by 18/5.

Time and work: if A does work in x days and B in y days, together they finish in xy/(x + y) days.

Average = sum of observations / number of observations; if each value is increased by k, the average increases by k.

Ratio and proportion: if a:b = c:d, then ad = bc; for partnership, profit shares are proportional to capital × time.

Mensuration: area of circle = πr²; circumference = 2πr; volume of cylinder = πr²h; area of triangle = ½ × base × height.

Number series: check differences, then ratios, then squares/cubes, then alternating operations; primes often appear in mixed series.

Coding-decoding: identify the shift pattern (e.g., +1, +2, +3) or reversal rule before applying it to the target word.

Blood relations: draw a family tree with gender symbols; 'mother's brother' = maternal uncle, 'father's sister' = paternal aunt.

Direction sense: use a compass diagram; after a right turn from north you face east; opposite pairs are N-S and E-W.

Syllogism: 'All A are B' implies 'Some B are A'; conclusions must be true in every possible Venn diagram to be valid.

Seating arrangement: for circular arrangements, fix one person and count relative positions clockwise or anticlockwise.

Odd one out: check for shared properties like prime numbers, perfect squares, or common letter positions in the alphabet.

Calendar: a normal year shifts the weekday by 1, a leap year by 2; a century year is a leap year only if divisible by 400.

POSDCORB (Gulick) stands for Planning, Organising, Staffing, Directing, Co-ordinating, Reporting and Budgeting.

Weber's ideal bureaucracy rests on hierarchy, written rules, impersonality, division of labour and merit-based recruitment.

Taylor's scientific management uses time study, motion study, differential piece-rate wages and functional foremanship.

Span of control is the number of subordinates a supervisor can effectively manage; a narrow span produces a tall hierarchy.

Centralisation concentrates authority at the top; decentralisation delegates decision-making to lower levels and is linked to delegation and responsibility.

Office management functions include filing, indexing, record keeping, correspondence, and maintaining stationery and office equipment.

Management by Objectives (Drucker) sets measurable goals jointly between supervisor and subordinate, with periodic review of performance.

Good filing systems must be simple, accessible, economical, safe and capable of expansion; alphabetically arranged files are the simplest form.

The Chief Minister is the head of the state government; the Chief Secretary is the senior-most IAS officer and heads the state secretariat.

Districts are administered by a District Collector, who is also the District Magistrate and the head of revenue administration.

Andhra Pradesh has 26 districts after the 2022 reorganisation (earlier 13); each district is divided into revenue divisions and mandals.

Panchayati Raj in AP is a three-tier system: Gram Panchayat, Mandal Parishad and Zilla Parishad, following the 73rd Constitutional Amendment.

Major AP welfare schemes: Navaratnalu, YSR Rythu Bharosa (farmer support), Amma Vodi (education support), and Aarogyasri (health insurance).

NITI Aayog replaced the Planning Commission in 2015; AP prepares its own annual budget and receives funds through the Finance Commission devolution.

The Andhra Pradesh Public Service Commission (APPSC) conducts the Group-I, Group-II and other recruitment examinations under Article 315.

The Andhra Pradesh State Human Rights Commission and Lokayukta are statutory bodies for grievance redressal; the Lokayukta investigates corruption complaints against public functionaries.

The Election Commission of India (Article 324) is a constitutional body; the Chief Election Commissioner can be removed only like a Supreme Court judge.

The Comptroller and Auditor General (Article 148) audits all government accounts; the CAG is called the guardian of the public purse.

The Finance Commission (Article 280) is constituted every five years to recommend devolution of taxes between the Centre and states.

The UPSC (Article 315) conducts civil services examinations; the State PSC is constituted under the same article for state services.

Fundamental Rights (Articles 12-35) include equality, freedom, exploitation, religion, cultural and educational, and constitutional remedies.

The Right to Information Act, 2005 gives citizens the right to seek information from public authorities within 30 days.

The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments (1992) gave constitutional status to Panchayati Raj and urban local bodies respectively.

Directive Principles of State Policy (Articles 36-51) are non-justiciable but fundamental in the governance of the country.

Tenses: present perfect ('has/have + past participle') is used for actions completed with present relevance; past simple for finished past actions with a definite time.

Conditionals: 'If + present simple, will + base verb' (first conditional); 'If + past simple, would + base verb' (second conditional).

Commonly confused words: affect (verb) vs effect (noun); principal (main/head) vs principle (rule); stationary (not moving) vs stationery (writing material).

Synonyms and antonyms are often tested in context; choose the option that fits the sentence's tone and register.

Sentence correction: check for parallel structure, misplaced modifiers, and dangling participles before selecting an answer.

Phrasal verbs: 'put off' = postpone; 'call off' = cancel; 'give in' = surrender; 'look into' = investigate.

Punctuation: use a semicolon to join two independent clauses without a conjunction; use a comma after an introductory phrase.

One-word substitutions: 'altruist' (selfless person), 'ephemeral' (short-lived), 'ubiquitous' (present everywhere), 'philanthropist' (charitable donor).

విభక్తులు: ప్రథమా, ద్వితీయా, తృతీయా, చతుర్థీ, పంచమీ, షష్ఠీ, సప్తమీ, సంబోధన - మొత్తం ఎనిమిది విభక్తులు.

క్రియలు: సమాపక క్రియ (వాక్యాన్ని పూర్తి చేస్తుంది) మరియు అసమాపక క్రియ (వాక్యాన్ని పూర్తి చేయదు) అని రెండు రకాలు.

ప్రత్యయాలు: క్త్వార్థకం, శత్రర్థకం, తుమర్థకం, ల్యబంతం - ఉదా. 'చదివి' క్త్వార్థక ప్రత్యయం.

తెలుగు సాహిత్యంలో ప్రధాన యుగాలు: ఆదికవి యుగం, కవిత్రయ యుగం, ప్రబంధ యుగం, ఆధునిక యుగం.

ప్రసిద్ధ తెలుగు రచనలు: ఆంధ్ర మహాభారతం (నన్నయ, తిక్కన, ఎర్రన), శ్రీమదాంధ్ర భాగవతం (పోతన), మనుచరిత్ర (అల్లసాని పెద్దన).

గుర్తింపు పొందిన ఆధునిక కవులు: గురజాడ అప్పారావు (ముత్యాల సరాలు), శ్రీశ్రీ (మహాప్రస్థానం), విశ్వనాథ సత్యనారాయణ (జ్ఞానపీఠ గ్రహీత).

జాతీయాలు మరియు సామెతలు అర్థాన్ని పరీక్షిస్తాయి; ఉదా. 'ముఖంలో మెతుకు లేదు' అనగా చాలా పేదరికం అని అర్థం.

తెలుగు భాషకు 2008లో భారత ప్రభుత్వం ప్రాచీన భాషా హోదా కల్పించింది.

Time and distance with relative speed: when two objects move in opposite directions, relative speed = sum; same direction = difference.

Boats and streams: downstream speed = boat + stream; upstream speed = boat − stream; time = distance / effective speed.

Simple and compound interest difference for 2 years = P × (R/100)²; for 3 years the formula is more complex and rarely asked.

Profit/loss on discount: SP = MP × (100 − discount%)/100; successive discounts of a and b equal a + b − ab/100.

Permutations and combinations: nPr = n!/(n−r)!; nCr = n!/[r!(n−r)!]; for circular arrangements, fix one object and arrange the rest in (n−1)!.

Probability = favourable outcomes / total outcomes; for independent events, P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B).

Number system: divisibility by 3 if digit sum divisible by 3; by 9 if digit sum divisible by 9; by 11 if alternating digit sum difference is divisible by 11.

LCM × HCF = product of the two numbers; use LCM for events happening together and HCF for dividing into largest equal parts.

Analogy: identify the relation type (tool-worker, part-whole, cause-effect) and apply the same relation to the target pair.

Statement and assumptions: an assumption is something taken for granted; only assumptions necessary for the statement to be valid should be selected.

Statement and conclusion: a conclusion must follow directly from the given statement; general knowledge should not be used to strengthen it.

Syllogism with 'No' statements: 'No A is B' converts to 'No B is A'; conclusions involving 'some' must be verified with Venn diagrams.

Puzzles with multiple attributes: build a grid table and eliminate possibilities systematically; start with the most constrained clue.

Number classification: check for prime, composite, perfect square, perfect cube, or whether the number is divisible by a common factor.

Letter series: memorise the alphabet positions (A=1, Z=26); reverse positions sum to 27 (A+Z=27).

Ranking and ordering: if a person is nth from the left and mth from the right, total = n + m − 1.

Woodrow Wilson's 1887 essay 'The Study of Administration' is considered the beginning of public administration as a separate discipline.

Elton Mayo's Hawthorne experiments highlighted the importance of human relations and informal groups in organisations.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs: physiological, safety, social, esteem and self-actualisation, in that order.

Herzberg's two-factor theory separates hygiene factors (salary, working conditions) from motivators (achievement, recognition).

Herbert Simon introduced the concept of 'bounded rationality' and 'satisficing' in decision-making.

Max Weber classified authority into traditional, charismatic and legal-rational types.

The New Public Management approach emphasises market mechanisms, performance measurement and citizen-centric service delivery.

Good governance principles include accountability, transparency, responsiveness, rule of law, equity and efficiency.

Filing methods: alphabetical, numerical, chronological, geographical and subject-wise; numerical filing is best for large volumes.

Indexing is a guide to files; it may be card indexing, visible index or slip index.

A 'note file' records the movement of a case; a 'correspondence file' contains incoming and outgoing letters.

Inward and outward registers track letters received and dispatched; a dispatch register records outgoing correspondence with date and number.

A 'draft' is a preliminary version of a communication; 'fair copy' is the final typed or written version ready for signature.

Office layout should minimise movement and noise; the open-plan layout is common for supervision but reduces privacy.

E-governance tools in offices include e-office, e-filing and digital signature; the IT Act, 2000 gives legal validity to digital signatures.

Budgeting in office management covers stationery, furniture, equipment and maintenance; it follows the annual financial cycle.

The Andhra Pradesh Secretariat is headed by the Chief Secretary; departments are headed by Principal Secretaries or Secretaries.

The state legislature consists of the Governor, the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council; the Assembly Speaker presides over the House.

The High Court of Andhra Pradesh is located at Amaravati; it was established in 2019 after bifurcation from the common High Court at Hyderabad.

District administration: Collector (revenue), Superintendent of Police (law and order), and Joint Collector (development) are key officers.

The Andhra Pradesh Public Service Commission (APPSC) is headquartered at Vijayawada and conducts Group-I, Group-II and other exams.

The AP State Finance Commission recommends devolution of funds to local bodies; the State Election Commission conducts local body elections.

The Andhra Pradesh Industrial Infrastructure Corporation (APIIC) is the nodal agency for industrial land and infrastructure.

Andhra Pradesh has been ranked highly in Ease of Doing Business; single-window clearance is provided through the AP Single Desk Portal.

Navaratnalu is the umbrella of nine welfare schemes launched by the AP government covering farmers, women, students and health.

YSR Rythu Bharosa provides investment support to farmers; PM-KISAN is the corresponding central scheme.

Amma Vodi provides financial assistance to mothers for sending children to school; it is linked to school attendance.

Aarogyasri is a health insurance scheme for BPL families; the scheme covers listed surgeries and treatments in network hospitals.

Jagananna Vidya Deevena and Vasathi Deevena support higher education fees and hostel expenses for eligible students.

The AP government's Pedalandariki Illu scheme aims at housing for the poor; the central Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY) also supports housing.

MGNREGA (2005) guarantees 100 days of wage employment per rural household per year; it is implemented through Gram Panchayats.

The National Food Security Act, 2013 provides subsidised food grains to priority households; AP implements it through the Public Distribution System.

The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950.

The Preamble declares India a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic; the words 'socialist' and 'secular' were added by the 42nd Amendment (1976).

The President is the head of state; the Prime Minister is the head of government and leader of the Council of Ministers.

The Rajya Sabha has a maximum of 250 members; the Lok Sabha has a maximum of 552 members.

Money bills can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha and require the President's recommendation; the Rajya Sabha can only suggest amendments within 14 days.

The Reserve Bank of India (1935) regulates monetary policy; the Monetary Policy Committee sets the repo rate.

GDP at market prices = C + I + G + (X − M); inflation is measured by CPI and WPI.

The Goods and Services Tax (2017) is a destination-based indirect tax with CGST, SGST and IGST components.

Skimming gives the main idea quickly; scanning locates specific facts like names, dates or numbers.

Inference questions ask what the passage implies, not what it states directly; the answer must be supported by the text.

Vocabulary-in-context: choose the meaning that fits the sentence, not the most common dictionary meaning.

Para jumbles: identify the opening sentence (often general), then link sentences by pronouns and connectors like 'however', 'therefore'.

Cloze test: read the whole passage first, then choose options that fit both grammar and meaning.

Précis writing: retain the central idea, cut examples, and keep the précis to about one-third of the original length.

Letter writing: formal letters use a salutation, body, complimentary close and signature; the tone must be polite and concise.

Essay structure: introduction, body paragraphs with one idea each, and a conclusion that restates the thesis without new arguments.

తెలుగు భాషలో ఐదు ప్రధాన మాండలికాలు: కోస్తా, రాయలసీమ, తెలంగాణ, ఉత్తరాంధ్ర మరియు కర్నూలు ప్రాంత మాండలికం.

తెలుగు లిపిలో 12 ఒత్తులు (కొమ్ము, దీర్ఘం మొదలైనవి) మరియు 3 అనుస్వారాలు (బిందువు, సున్న, రేఫం) ఉంటాయి.

అనువాదం: మూల భావాన్ని నిలిపి లక్ష్య భాషలో సహజంగా రాయడం; పదానికి పదం అనువాదం చేయకూడదు.

సంక్షేపణ: మూల పాఠ్యం యొక్క ముఖ్య భావాన్ని మాత్రమే ఉంచి, ఉదాహరణలను తొలగించి సుమారు మూడింట ఒక వంతు పొడవుకు తగ్గించడం.

పర్యాయపదాలు: 'నీరు' - జలం, ఉదకం; 'సూర్యుడు' - భాస్కరుడు, రవి; 'చంద్రుడు' - శశి, ఇందుడు.

నానార్థాలు: ఒకే పదానికి అనేక అర్థాలు ఉండటం; ఉదా. 'కరము' అనగా చేయి మరియు పన్ను.

విరుద్ధార్థాలు: 'ధనం' × 'దారిద్ర్యం'; 'సుఖం' × 'దుఃఖం'; 'జయం' × 'పరాజయం'.

తెలుగు భాషలో 56 అక్షరాలలో 16 అచ్చులు, 40 హల్లులు ఉన్నాయి; 'ఱ' మరియు 'ఴ' అరుదైన అక్షరాలు.

Data interpretation: read the axes, units and legend before calculating; approximate to save time when options are far apart.

Percentage of total = (part/total) × 100; pie chart angles are proportional to values (360° = 100%).

Average of a data set can be found by assumed mean method: average = assumed mean + (sum of deviations / number of items).

Ratio comparison across tables: convert all ratios to percentages or decimals before comparing.

Profit and loss with cost price and selling price: profit% = (SP − CP)/CP × 100; loss% = (CP − SP)/CP × 100.

Partnership: profit share ratio = capital × time; if capitals are equal, shares are proportional to time.

Mixtures and alligation: the rule of alligation gives the ratio of two components to mix for a desired mean price.

Averages with replacement: if a person of weight w is replaced by another of weight w', the average changes by (w' − w)/n.

Mirror image: the left side of the object appears on the right; vertical mirror reverses left and right, not top and bottom.

Water image: the top of the object appears at the bottom; horizontal mirror reverses top and bottom.

Paper folding and cutting: unfold step by step in reverse order; symmetry determines the number of holes.

Figure series: track rotation (90°, 180°), addition/removal of lines, and shading changes separately.

Embedded figures: identify the exact shape hidden within a complex figure; the shape must match in size and orientation.

Counting figures: count triangles by combining smaller triangles; use systematic grouping to avoid double counting.

Cube and dice: opposite faces are never adjacent; on a standard die, opposite faces sum to 7.

Analogy with figures: identify the transformation (rotation, reflection, enlargement) and apply it to the target figure.

The Right to Information Act, 2005 applies to all public authorities; information must be provided within 30 days of request.

The Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act, 2013 established the Lokpal at the Union level and Lokayuktas in states to investigate corruption.

The Central Vigilance Commission (1964) is the apex vigilance institution; it is not a constitutional body.

The Comptroller and Auditor General conducts audit of all government expenditure and reports to Parliament.

Administrative accountability mechanisms include legislative control, judicial review, administrative tribunals and citizen charters.

The Citizen's Charter is a public declaration of service standards, timelines and grievance redressal mechanisms.

E-governance initiatives like Digital India and e-Office aim at transparency, efficiency and citizen-centric service delivery.

The Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988 (amended 2018) penalises public servants for taking bribes; the 2018 amendment criminalised bribe-giving.

Andhra Pradesh has a coastline of about 974 km, the second longest among Indian states after Gujarat.

The Eastern Ghats run through the state; the highest peak in AP is Arma Konda (Jindhagada Peak) in the Araku Valley region.

Major crops: rice, cotton, chilli, tobacco, sugarcane and mango; the Godavari and Krishna deltas are the rice bowls of the state.

Important ports: Visakhapatnam, Kakinada and Krishnapatnam; Visakhapatnam is the largest port in AP.

Mineral resources include coal (Singareni), barytes (Mangampet), limestone and mica; Mangampet has one of the world's largest barytes deposits.

The state's economy is driven by agriculture, aquaculture, IT services (Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada) and manufacturing.

Amaravati is the planned capital city of Andhra Pradesh, located on the banks of the Krishna river.

AP has 26 districts; the state's literacy rate is around 67% as per Census 2011.

Photosynthesis: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂, occurring in chloroplasts using sunlight and chlorophyll.

The human body has 206 bones in adults; the smallest bone is the stapes in the ear and the largest is the femur.

Blood groups: A, B, AB and O; O negative is the universal donor and AB positive is the universal recipient.

Newton's laws: an object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by a force (first law); F = ma (second law).

The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14; pH below 7 is acidic, above 7 is basic, and 7 is neutral.

Greenhouse gases include CO₂, methane, nitrous oxide and water vapour; the Montreal Protocol addresses ozone-depleting substances.

Biodiversity hotspots in India include the Western Ghats, the Himalayas, Indo-Burma and Sundaland.

Vaccines work by stimulating the immune system to produce antibodies; the BCG vaccine protects against tuberculosis.

Formal email structure: subject line, salutation, purpose statement, body, action request and sign-off.

Report writing: use a title, introduction, findings and conclusion; keep the language objective and third-person.

Notice writing: include the heading 'NOTICE', date, issuing authority, subject, body and signature.

Paragraph writing: one topic sentence, supporting sentences and a concluding sentence; maintain unity and coherence.

Active voice is preferred for clarity in official communication; passive voice is used when the doer is unknown or unimportant.

Avoid jargon and redundancy in official letters; 'please revert' should be replaced by 'please reply'.

Minutes of a meeting record decisions, not discussions; they include date, attendees, agenda items and action points.

Circulars communicate policy to many recipients; they are formal, brief and usually issued by an authorised officer.

ప్రబంధం: పెద్ద కథా కావ్యం; ఉదా. మనుచరిత్ర, అముక్తమాల్యద, పారిజాతాపహరణం - అష్టదిగ్గజాల కాలంలో ప్రధాన ప్రక్రియ.

శతకం: నూరు పద్యాల సంకలనం; ఉదా. వేమన శతకం, సుమతీ శతకం, దాశరథీ శతకం.

ద్విపద: రెండు పాదాల చిన్న కవితా రూపం; రంగనాథ రామాయణం ద్విపద కావ్యం.

యక్షగానం: సంగీత, నృత్య, నాట్య సమ్మేళనం; ఉదా. క్షేత్రయ్య పదాలు.

ఆధునిక కవిత్వం: భావ కవిత్వం (గురజాడ, రాయప్రోలు), అభ్యుదయ కవిత్వం (శ్రీశ్రీ), దీనబంధు కవిత్వం.

నాటకం: కథానాయకుడు, సంఘర్షణ, సంభాషణలు, రంగస్థలం ప్రధాన అంశాలు; ఉదా. కన్యాశుల్కం (గురజాడ).

వచన కవిత: గద్య రూపంలో రాసిన కవిత; శ్రీశ్రీ మహాప్రస్థానం ఈ ప్రక్రియకు ప్రసిద్ధం.

జానపద సాహిత్యం: బుర్రకథ, ఒగ్గుకథ, తోలుబొమ్మలాట, జముకుల కథ వంటి ప్రజా ప్రక్రియలు.

Area of a triangle = ½ × base × height; Heron's formula: √[s(s−a)(s−b)(s−c)] where s = (a+b+c)/2.

Pythagoras theorem: in a right triangle, hypotenuse² = base² + perpendicular².

Area of a trapezium = ½ × (sum of parallel sides) × height.

Volume of a sphere = (4/3)πr³; surface area = 4πr²; volume of a cone = (1/3)πr²h.

Volume of a cuboid = l × b × h; total surface area = 2(lb + bh + hl).

Area of a sector = (θ/360) × πr²; length of an arc = (θ/360) × 2πr.

Sum of interior angles of a polygon = (n − 2) × 180°; each interior angle of a regular polygon = (n − 2) × 180°/n.

Similar triangles: corresponding sides are proportional, and the ratio of areas equals the square of the ratio of corresponding sides.

Decision making questions test practical judgement; choose the option that solves the problem within rules and without harm.

Cause and effect: the cause must precede the effect; do not assume a cause if the statement only reports an event.

Course of action: a valid action must be feasible, relevant and sufficient to address the problem in the statement.

Critical reasoning: identify the premise and the conclusion; the assumption bridges them.

Strengthen/weaken questions: the correct option makes the conclusion more or less likely without adding new unrelated facts.

Logical sequence of words: arrange by time, size, hierarchy or process order (e.g., seed → sapling → tree).

Analogy with numbers: check squares, cubes, primes and their positions; 2:8 :: 3:27 is a cube relation.

Syllogism with possibility: 'Some A are B' allows 'All A are B' as a possibility unless stated otherwise.

The Union Budget is presented annually on 1 February; it includes revenue receipts, capital receipts, expenditure and deficits.

Revenue expenditure is recurring (salaries, interest); capital expenditure creates assets (roads, buildings).

Fiscal deficit = total expenditure − total receipts excluding borrowings; it indicates the government's borrowing requirement.

The Finance Commission (Article 280) recommends devolution of central taxes to states; the 15th Finance Commission covered 2021-26.

The Public Accounts Committee examines the audit reports of the CAG; it is a parliamentary committee.

Zero-based budgeting starts each year from scratch and justifies every expenditure; it contrasts with incremental budgeting.

Outcome budgeting links expenditure to measurable outcomes rather than inputs.

The Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management (FRBM) Act, 2003 sets targets for fiscal deficit and debt reduction.

Andhra Pradesh ranked first among states in the Ease of Doing Business rankings released by the central government in 2019.

The AP government launched the 'Jagananna Chedodu' scheme to support traditional artisans and weavers.

The 'YSR Cheyutha' scheme provides financial assistance to women from backward classes and minority communities.

The 'Village and Ward Secretariat' system was introduced in AP for doorstep delivery of government services.

AP's 'Nadu-Nedu' programme aims to improve infrastructure in government schools.

The 'Rythu Bharosa Kendras' (RBKs) provide farmers with seeds, fertilisers and advisory services at the village level.

Amaravati is being developed as the capital region; the AP Capital Region Development Authority (CRDA) oversees planning.

AP has set up the Andhra Pradesh Green Energy Corporation to promote solar and renewable energy projects.

The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885 by A.O. Hume; the first session was held in Bombay.

The partition of Bengal in 1905 by Lord Curzon led to the Swadeshi Movement.

Mahatma Gandhi launched the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920 and the Quit India Movement in 1942.

The Dandi March (1930) began the Civil Disobedience Movement against the salt tax.

The Government of India Act, 1935 introduced provincial autonomy and a federal structure.

India gained independence on 15 August 1947 under the Indian Independence Act, 1947.

The Simon Commission (1927) was boycotted because it had no Indian members.

Subhas Chandra Bose founded the Indian National Army (Azad Hind Fauj) in 1942.

'To let the cat out of the bag' means to reveal a secret unintentionally.

'To beat around the bush' means to avoid coming to the main point.

'A blessing in disguise' means an apparent misfortune that turns out to be beneficial.

'To burn the midnight oil' means to study or work late into the night.

'To hit the nail on the head' means to describe a situation exactly and accurately.

'Once in a blue moon' means something that happens very rarely.

'To turn a deaf ear' means to refuse to listen to a request or complaint.

'To be in hot water' means to be in trouble or a difficult situation.

తెలుగు వాక్యంలో కర్త, కర్మ, క్రియ ప్రధాన భాగాలు; సాధారణ క్రమం కర్త-కర్మ-క్రియ.

కర్తరి వాక్యం: కర్త ముఖ్యం (ఉదా. 'రాముడు పుస్తకం చదివాడు'); కర్మణి వాక్యం: కర్మ ముఖ్యం (ఉదా. 'రాముడిచేత పుస్తకం చదవబడింది').

ప్రశ్నార్థక వాక్యాలు: 'ఏమి', 'ఎక్కడ', 'ఎప్పుడు', 'ఎలా' వంటి ప్రశ్నార్థక పదాలతో ఏర్పడతాయి.

నిషేధార్థక వాక్యాలు: 'కూడదు', 'వద్దు', 'చేయకూడదు' వంటి పదాలతో నిషేధాన్ని తెలియజేస్తాయి.

విధ్యర్థక వాక్యాలు: ఆజ్ఞ, ఆదేశం, అభ్యర్థన తెలిపే వాక్యాలు; ఉదా. 'దయచేసి కూర్చోండి'.

సంక్లిష్ట వాక్యాలు: రెండు లేదా అధిక స్వతంత్ర ఉపవాక్యాలను 'మరియు', 'కానీ', 'అందువల్ల' వంటి సంధాయక పదాలతో కలపడం.

అక్షర దోషాలు: 'శ' మరియు 'ష' భేదం, 'ణ' మరియు 'న' భేదం తెలుగు వ్యాకరణ ప్రశ్నలలో ముఖ్యమైనవి.

తెలుగులో అనువాదం చేసేటప్పుడు సాంకేతిక పదాలను అలాగే ఉంచడం లేదా ప్రామాణిక పదాన్ని ఉపయోగించడం మంచిది.

Series with increasing differences: check if differences form an arithmetic progression (e.g., 2, 4, 6, 8).

Series with multiplying factors: check for ×2, ×3 or ×1.5 patterns; alternate series often combine two rules.

Squares and cubes series: 1, 4, 9, 16, 25 or 1, 8, 27, 64 - identify the base sequence.

Simplification: follow BODMAS - Brackets, Orders (powers/roots), Division, Multiplication, Addition, Subtraction.

Approximation: round numbers to the nearest ten or hundred to estimate; use the options to decide how precise to be.

Surds and indices: a^m × a^n = a^(m+n); (a^m)^n = a^(mn); a^0 = 1 for a ≠ 0.

Square roots: √(a²) = |a|; to find √n approximately, use the nearest perfect squares on either side.

Fractions comparison: cross-multiply to compare a/b and c/d; the larger cross product indicates the larger fraction.

Linear arrangement: fix the person at an end first; positions from the left and right are complementary.

Circular arrangement facing the centre: a person's left is clockwise and right is anticlockwise.

Circular arrangement facing outward: a person's left is anticlockwise and right is clockwise.

Floor puzzles: build a table with floor numbers and attributes; the top floor is the highest number.

Scheduling puzzles: use days of the week as columns and people as rows; mark clues with 'before' and 'after'.

Box puzzles: stack boxes from bottom to top; 'immediately above' means adjacent, 'above' allows gaps.

Blood relation puzzles: draw a tree with generations as rows and siblings in the same row.

Selection puzzles: list all conditions as inequalities or exclusions before testing options.

Leadership styles: autocratic (decision by leader), democratic (participative) and laissez-faire (free rein).

McGregor's Theory X assumes workers dislike work and need control; Theory Y assumes workers are self-motivated.

Group dynamics: formal groups are created by the organisation; informal groups emerge from social interaction.

Communication barriers include semantic, psychological, organisational and physical barriers.

Conflict can be functional (constructive) or dysfunctional (destructive); conflict resolution styles include avoidance, accommodation, competition, compromise and collaboration.

Organisational change is analysed by Lewin's model: unfreezing, moving (change) and refreezing.

Job satisfaction is influenced by pay, working conditions, supervision, recognition and the work itself.

Performance appraisal methods include ranking, rating scales, critical incident and 360-degree feedback.

The 73rd Constitutional Amendment (1992) added Part IX and the Eleventh Schedule to the Constitution, covering 29 subjects for Panchayats.

Three-tier Panchayati Raj in AP: Gram Panchayat at village level, Mandal Parishad at intermediate level, and Zilla Parishad at district level.

Gram Sabha consists of all registered voters in a village; it approves the Gram Panchayat budget and development plans.

Reservation for SCs, STs and women (one-third) applies to Panchayat seats; AP provides 50% reservation for women in local bodies.

The State Finance Commission recommends funds for local bodies; the State Election Commission conducts Panchayat elections.

Mandal Parishad is headed by a President; Zilla Parishad is headed by a Chairperson, with a CEO as administrative head.

Functions of Gram Panchayats include water supply, sanitation, street lighting, local roads and maintenance of public assets.

The AP Panchayat Raj Act, 1994 governs the structure and functions of Panchayati Raj institutions in the state.

India has 28 states and 8 union territories after the reorganisation of Jammu and Kashmir in 2019.

The Tropic of Cancer passes through eight Indian states, including Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal.

The Himalayas are divided into the Greater Himalayas (Himadri), Lesser Himalayas (Himachal) and Shivaliks.

The Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats meet at the Nilgiri Hills; the highest peak in India is Kangchenjunga (8,586 m).

Major rivers: Ganga, Yamuna, Brahmaputra, Godavari, Krishna, Narmada and Tapti; the Godavari is the longest river in peninsular India.

The Indian monsoon is driven by differential heating of land and sea; the southwest monsoon arrives in Kerala around 1 June.

Soil types: alluvial, black (regur), red, laterite, arid and forest soils; black soil is suitable for cotton.

India's coastline is about 7,516 km long, including islands; the Andaman and Nicobar Islands lie in the Bay of Bengal.

Check for double negatives: 'I didn't do nothing' should be 'I didn't do anything'.

Ensure pronoun-antecedent agreement: 'Each student must bring his or her book', not 'their book' in formal writing.

Avoid redundant expressions: 'return back' should be 'return'; 'discuss about' should be 'discuss'.

Use 'who' for people and 'which' for things; 'that' can refer to either in restrictive clauses.

Comparatives: use 'than' after comparative adjectives; 'more better' is incorrect - use 'better'.

Correct prepositions with verbs: 'listen to', 'depend on', 'comprise of' is incorrect - 'comprise' takes no 'of'.

Parallelism: lists should use the same grammatical form, e.g., 'swimming, running and cycling'.

Modifiers should sit next to the word they modify; 'Walking down the road, I saw a dog' is correct because 'I' was walking.

'ముఖంలో మెతుకు లేదు' అనగా అత్యంత పేదరికం అని అర్థం.

'చేతి కంకణానికి అద్దం ఎందుకు' అనగా స్పష్టంగా తెలిసిన విషయానికి నిరూపణ అక్కరలేదు.

'గోరంతలు కొండంతలు' అనగా చిన్న విషయాన్ని పెద్దదిగా చేసి చెప్పడం.

'అతి తెలివి కంటే ఆత్మవిశ్వాసం మేలు' అనగా అధిక తెలివి కంటే నమ్మకం ముఖ్యం.

'కాలు జారితే గోతి, నోరు జారితే మాట' అనగా మాట జారడం ప్రమాదకరం.

'పండితుడు పసివాడు ఒకటే' అనగా జ్ఞాని మరియు పసివాడు ఒకేలా నిష్కపటంగా ఉంటారు.

'ఇంటి దగ్గర పెద్దలు లేరు' అనగా అదుపు లేని పరిస్థితి.

'నీళ్లలో మునిగిన వాడికి ఈత వచ్చు' అనగా కష్టాలను అనుభవించిన వాడికి పరిష్కారం తెలుస్తుంది.