AP Intermediate Zoology (BIEAP) cheat sheet

Binomial nomenclature: genus capitalized, species lowercase, both italicized (e.g., Homo sapiens); author and year in Roman type.

Five-kingdom system (Whittaker): Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia; three-domain system (Woese) uses Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya.

Animalia synapomorphies: multicellular, heterotrophic, no cell walls, diploid life cycle, blastula stage, specialized tissues (except sponges).

Body symmetry: asymmetry (Porifera), radial (Cnidaria, adult Echinodermata), bilateral (most Bilateria); bilateral animals have cephalization and dorsal/ventral sides.

Coelom types: acoelomate (Platyhelminthes), pseudocoelomate (Nematoda), coelomate (Annelida onward); true coelom lined by mesoderm.

Phylum Porifera: choanocytes, spongocoel, ostia, osculum; cellular level of organization; spicules of silica or calcium carbonate.

Phylum Cnidaria: cnidocytes with nematocysts, polyp and medusa forms, diploblastic, gastrovascular cavity with single opening.

Phylum Chordata: notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, pharyngeal slits, post-anal tail; subphyla Urochordata, Cephalochordata, Vertebrata.

Vertebrate classes: Agnatha (jawless), Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous), Osteichthyes (bony), Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia; mammals have mammary glands and hair.

Four tissue types: epithelial (covering/lining), connective (support/binding), muscular (movement), nervous (communication).

Epithelium classification by cell shape (squamous, cuboidal, columnar) and layering (simple, stratified); tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions mediate adhesion.

Bone tissue: osteoblasts (form), osteocytes (maintain), osteoclasts (resorb); Haversian systems contain concentric lamellae and canaliculi.

Muscle types: skeletal (striated, multinucleate, voluntary), cardiac (striated, intercalated discs, involuntary), smooth (non-striated, spindle-shaped, involuntary).

Sliding filament theory: myosin heads bind actin, power stroke requires ATP and Ca2+; troponin-tropomyosin complex regulates contraction.

Neuron structure: dendrites (input), soma (integration), axon (conduction), axon terminals (output); myelin sheath increases conduction velocity via saltatory conduction.

Digestive system: peristalsis moves bolus; gastric HCl activates pepsinogen to pepsin; villi and microvilli increase surface area for absorption.

Circulatory system: open (arthropods, molluscs) vs closed (annelids, vertebrates); mammalian heart has four chambers with left ventricle thickest.

Respiratory surfaces: gills (fish), skin (amphibians), tracheae (insects), lungs (tetrapods); countercurrent exchange in fish gills maximizes O2 uptake.

Homeostasis maintains internal stability via negative feedback; sensors detect change, control center integrates, effectors respond.

Osmoregulation: freshwater fish excrete dilute urine and actively take up ions; marine bony fish drink seawater and excrete concentrated salts via gills.

Thermoregulation: endotherms generate metabolic heat; ectotherms rely on environment; countercurrent heat exchange conserves heat in extremities.

Nerve impulse: resting potential about -70 mV maintained by Na+/K+ ATPase; depolarization opens voltage-gated Na+ channels; repolarization via K+ efflux.

Synaptic transmission: Ca2+ influx triggers neurotransmitter exocytosis; acetylcholine degraded by acetylcholinesterase.

Hormones: insulin lowers blood glucose, glucagon raises it; thyroid hormones regulate metabolic rate; ADH increases water reabsorption in kidneys.

Blood: plasma, erythrocytes (hemoglobin), leukocytes (immunity), platelets (clotting); ABO and Rh antigens determine blood type compatibility.

Gas transport: hemoglobin binds O2 cooperatively (sigmoid curve); CO2 transported as bicarbonate (about 70%), carbaminohemoglobin, and dissolved gas.

Excretion: nephron segments-glomerulus (filtration), proximal tubule (reabsorption), loop of Henle (concentration), distal tubule and collecting duct (regulated reabsorption).

Asexual reproduction modes: budding (Hydra), fragmentation (Planaria), regeneration, parthenogenesis (aphids, some reptiles).

Human spermatogenesis: spermatogonia → primary spermatocyte (meiosis I) → secondary spermatocyte → spermatids → sperm; occurs in seminiferous tubules.

Oogenesis: oogonia → primary oocyte arrested in prophase I; meiosis II completes only after fertilization; polar bodies are nonfunctional.

Menstrual cycle: follicular phase (FSH), ovulation (LH surge), luteal phase (progesterone); corpus luteum maintains endometrium.

Fertilization: acrosomal enzymes digest zona pellucida; fast block to polyspermy by membrane depolarization; slow block by cortical reaction.

Cleavage patterns: holoblastic (complete) vs meroblastic (incomplete); radial (echinoderms), spiral (molluscs, annelids), discoidal (birds).

Gastrulation forms three germ layers: ectoderm (epidermis, nervous system), mesoderm (muscle, bone, blood), endoderm (gut lining, liver, lungs).

Placental hormones: hCG maintains corpus luteum early; progesterone and estrogen sustain pregnancy; oxytocin induces uterine contractions at birth.

Embryonic membranes: amnion (fluid cushion), chorion (gas exchange), allantois (waste storage), yolk sac (nutrient supply in some vertebrates).

Mendel's laws: segregation of alleles and independent assortment; test cross reveals genotype of dominant phenotype.

DNA structure: double helix, antiparallel strands, A-T and G-C base pairs with hydrogen bonds; deoxyribose-phosphate backbone.

DNA replication is semiconservative; helicase unwinds, DNA polymerase synthesizes 5'→3', leading strand continuous, lagging strand in Okazaki fragments.

Transcription: RNA polymerase binds promoter; in eukaryotes introns spliced out, exons joined; mRNA capped and polyadenylated.

Translation: ribosome reads mRNA codons; tRNA anticodons deliver amino acids; start codon AUG (methionine), stop codons UAA, UAG, UGA.

Mutation types: substitution (missense, nonsense, silent), insertion/deletion causing frameshift; chromosomal aberrations include deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation.

Human genetics: autosomal dominant (e.g., achondroplasia), autosomal recessive (e.g., cystic fibrosis), X-linked recessive (e.g., hemophilia) inheritance patterns.

Operon model (lac operon): repressor binds operator in absence of lactose; lactose acts as inducer; CAP-cAMP activates transcription when glucose is low.

Biotechnology tools: restriction enzymes cut specific palindromic sequences; plasmids serve as vectors; PCR amplifies DNA using Taq polymerase and primers.

Darwin's theory: variation, inheritance, differential survival and reproduction (natural selection); evidence from fossils, biogeography, comparative anatomy, molecular data.

Homologous structures share ancestry (forelimbs of vertebrates); analogous structures share function but not ancestry (wings of birds and insects).

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium: p + q = 1; p² + 2pq + q² = 1; conditions include no mutation, no migration, random mating, large population, no selection.

Speciation: allopatric (geographic isolation), sympatric (polyploidy, habitat shifts); reproductive isolating mechanisms include prezygotic and postzygotic barriers.

Innate behaviour is genetically fixed (fixed action patterns); learned behaviour includes habituation, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, insight learning.

Communication signals: visual (courtship displays), auditory (birdsong), chemical (pheromones), tactile; altruism explained by kin selection and inclusive fitness.

Social behaviour: eusociality in insects (haplodiploidy), dominance hierarchies, territoriality, cooperative breeding.

Sexual selection: intrasexual competition (male-male combat) and intersexual choice (female preference); leads to sexual dimorphism.

Population growth: exponential model dN/dt = rN; logistic model dN/dt = rN(K−N)/K; carrying capacity K is maximum sustainable population.

Species interactions: competition (−/−), predation and parasitism (+/−), mutualism (+/+), commensalism (+/0); competitive exclusion principle.

Energy flow: only about 10% transferred between trophic levels; pyramids of energy, biomass, and numbers; decomposers recycle nutrients.

Biogeochemical cycles: carbon (photosynthesis, respiration, combustion), nitrogen (fixation, nitrification, denitrification), phosphorus (no atmospheric phase).

Ecological succession: primary succession on bare rock (lichens → mosses → grasses → shrubs → trees); secondary succession after disturbance.

Biodiversity hotspots: high species richness and endemism under threat; India has Western Ghats, Himalaya, Indo-Burma, Sundaland (Nicobar).

Conservation status categories (IUCN): Extinct, Extinct in the Wild, Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, Near Threatened, Least Concern.

Pollution: biomagnification of persistent toxins (DDT, mercury) increases concentration at higher trophic levels; eutrophication causes algal blooms and oxygen depletion.

Apiculture: Apis indica, A. mellifera; queen (reproduction), drones (mating), workers (foraging, nursing); honey and beeswax are products; pollination service.

Sericulture: Bombyx mori (mulberry silkworm); life cycle egg → larva → pupa → adult; silk from salivary glands; rearing requires controlled temperature and humidity.

Poultry: improved breeds (Leghorn, Rhode Island Red); incubation period about 21 days; vaccination against Newcastle disease and fowl pox.

Dairy and livestock: cattle breeds (Holstein-Friesian for milk, Gir for disease resistance); artificial insemination and embryo transfer improve stock.

Pisciculture: composite fish culture with Indian major carps (Catla, Rohu, Mrigal) and exotic carps; induced breeding by hypophysation (pituitary extract).

Pearl culture: freshwater mussel Lamellidens; nucleus implantation triggers nacre secretion; pearls formed in mantle tissue.

Pest control: biological control (ladybirds, Trichogramma), integrated pest management combines cultural, biological, and chemical methods.

Aquaculture systems: extensive (natural feed), semi-intensive (supplemental feed), intensive (high density, aeration); water quality parameters-DO, pH, ammonia.

Aquaculture types: freshwater (carps, tilapia), brackish water (shrimp, mullet), marine (sea bass, oysters); open vs closed systems.

Shrimp farming: Penaeus monodon and Litopenaeus vannamei; hatchery production of postlarvae; diseases include white spot syndrome virus (WSSV).

Fish diseases: bacterial (Aeromonas, Vibrio), viral (infectious pancreatic necrosis), fungal (Saprolegnia); prophylaxis by water quality and vaccination.

Transgenic animals: gene transfer by microinjection, electroporation, viral vectors; examples include growth hormone transgenic fish and knockout mice.

Stem cells: pluripotent embryonic stem cells can differentiate into all cell types; induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) reprogram adult cells.

Gene therapy: somatic gene therapy corrects defective genes in target tissues; germline editing is heritable and ethically restricted.

DNA fingerprinting: variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs) and short tandem repeats (STRs); used in paternity testing and forensic identification.

Bioinformatics: sequence alignment (BLAST), phylogenetic analysis, genome databases (GenBank, EMBL); computer tools for molecular data.