AP SSC English (Third Language) key terms

The verb form that shows when an action happens - past, present or future - and whether it is finished, ongoing or repeated. English has simple, continuous, perfect and perfect continuous forms in each time frame.

Agreement between sentence parts, especially a subject and its verb matching in number and person. A singular subject takes a singular verb; a plural subject takes a plural verb, even when words come between them.

The sentence pattern in which the subject performs the action, as in 'The teacher marked the papers'. It is direct and usually shorter than the passive, and examiners often prefer it in guided writing tasks.

The pattern in which the object of the action becomes the subject, formed with a form of 'be' plus the past participle, as in 'The papers were marked'. Used when the doer is unknown, unimportant or obvious.

The doer of an action. In a passive sentence the agent is often introduced by 'by', as in 'The letter was written by Ravi'. If the doer is unknown or irrelevant, the agent is normally left out.

Telling what someone said without quoting their exact words. Pronouns, tenses and time or place words usually shift back one step, as in 'She said that she was tired that day'.

A speaker's exact words placed inside quotation marks after a reporting clause, as in 'He said, "I am busy."' The punctuation and capitalisation of the quoted words must be kept exactly.

The verb such as say, tell, ask, advise or warn that introduces reported speech. It decides word order and whether a question becomes an 'if/whether' clause or a 'to'-infinitive.

A clause beginning with who, whom, whose, which or that which describes a noun before it, as in 'the boy who won'. It may be defining (no commas) or non-defining (with commas).

A group of words with its own subject and verb that cannot stand alone as a sentence because it depends on a main clause, as in 'because it rained' in 'We stayed home because it rained'.

A sentence expressing a condition, usually with 'if'. The first conditional uses present tense with 'will'; the second uses past with 'would'; the third uses past perfect with 'would have'.

A word that joins words, phrases or clauses, such as and, but, or, because, although and while. Coordinating conjunctions join equals; subordinating ones attach a dependent clause to a main clause.

A word placed before a noun or pronoun to show place, time, direction or relationship, such as in, on, at, under, between and since. Choice is often fixed by idiom rather than logic.

The determiner 'a', 'an' or 'the' placed before a noun. 'A' and 'an' are indefinite and depend on sound, not spelling; 'the' is definite and points to something already known or unique.

A noun that has a singular and a plural form and can be counted, such as book/books or child/children. Uncountable nouns like advice, furniture and information take no plural and no 'a'.

A single word naming a group, such as team, committee, jury or flock. It usually takes a singular verb when the group acts as one unit and a plural verb when members act separately.

A word with nearly the same meaning as another, such as 'begin' and 'commence' or 'brave' and 'courageous'. True synonyms are rare; most differ in formality, strength or collocation.

A word opposite in meaning to another, such as 'ancient' and 'modern' or 'generous' and 'stingy'. Antonyms may be graded (hot/cold) or absolute pairs (alive/dead).

A letter group added to the front of a word to change its meaning, as un- in 'unfair', dis- in 'disagree' or re- in 'rewrite'. Prefixes usually alter meaning; suffixes usually alter word class.

A letter group added to the end of a word to change its grammatical class or meaning, as -ness in 'kindness' (adjective to noun) or -less in 'careless' (noun to adjective).

The correct grammatical shape of a word for its slot in a sentence - noun, verb, adjective or adverb. Choosing wrongly, as in 'success' for 'successful', is a common error in gap-filling exercises.

A fixed expression whose meaning cannot be worked out from its separate words, such as 'a bolt from the blue' (a total surprise) or 'to burn the midnight oil' (to study late).

A verb combined with an adverb or preposition to make a new meaning, such as 'give up' (quit), 'put off' (postpone) or 'look after' (care for). Some are separable and some are not.

A single word replacing a long descriptive phrase, such as 'orphan' for a child whose parents are dead, 'omnivorous' for one eating both plants and flesh, or 'philanthropist' for a lover of mankind.

The habitual pairing of words that native users expect together, such as 'heavy rain', 'make a decision' or 'strong tea'. Wrong partners, like 'do a decision', sound unnatural even when grammar is correct.

A conclusion drawn from clues in a passage rather than from a stated sentence. Inference questions ask what the writer implies, suggests or assumes, and the answer must be supported by the text.

The central point a paragraph or passage is built around, usually stated in a topic sentence. Distinguishing it from supporting details is the key skill in comprehension questions about the writer's purpose.

The sentence, often first in a paragraph, that announces the paragraph's subject and controlling idea. The remaining sentences support, illustrate or qualify it with examples and evidence.

A hint inside the surrounding words that reveals an unfamiliar word's meaning - through definition, example, contrast or cause. It lets a reader guess without a dictionary.

Reading quickly with the eyes moving to find one specific item, such as a date, name or number, without reading every word. It is faster than skimming and is used for answer-hunting.

Reading rapidly for the general sense - the gist - by looking at headings, first sentences and key words. It gives an overview before detailed reading or before answering global questions.

The quality that makes a piece of writing hold together logically, with ideas in a sensible order and linked by connectors such as however, therefore and in addition. It concerns order, not just grammar.

The linking of sentences by grammatical and lexical devices - pronouns, repeated words, synonyms and connectors - so that each sentence connects clearly to the one before it.

A short formal announcement displayed for a group, giving what, when, where and whom to contact. It uses a heading, brief impersonal sentences and the writer's name and designation at the end.

A brief informal note conveying information to someone who is absent, usually in reported or direct form. It states the time, the caller and the action needed, and is kept short and clear.

A letter to an official or editor in a set layout: sender's address, date, receiver's address, salutation, subject, body in paragraphs, and a closing with name. The tone stays polite and impersonal.

Writing that tells a story with a setting, characters, a rising problem, a climax and a resolution. Past tenses dominate, and dialogue or description is used to hold the reader's interest.

Written conversation between two or more characters, each turn on a new line with the speaker's name. It should sound natural, reveal character and move the story or discussion forward.

The central idea or message a literary work explores, such as courage, sacrifice, greed or the value of education. It is expressed through events and characters rather than stated outright.

The methods a writer uses to build a character - appearance, speech, actions, thoughts and others' opinions. A character may be flat (one trait) or round (many, changing traits).

A deliberate departure from literal language for effect, such as simile, metaphor, personification or hyperbole. Recognising the type and explaining its effect is a standard poetry question.

Language that appeals to the senses - sight, sound, smell, touch, taste - to create vivid pictures in the reader's mind. It often carries the poem's mood and emotional weight.