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BSEH SS Philosophy practice questions

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Question 1Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

The term 'philosophy' derives from the Greek words 'philos' and 'sophia'. What does this etymology literally express?

  1. Fear of the unknown
  2. Love of wisdom Correct answer.
  3. Pursuit of wealth
  4. Study of nature

Explanation

The Greek roots are 'philos' (loving) and 'sophia' (wisdom), so 'philosophy' literally means the love of wisdom. The term names a disciplined desire for understanding rather than a practical occupation or a set of technical skills.

Question 2Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

Which branch of philosophy deals with the nature of being, existence, and reality?

  1. Epistemology
  2. Ethics
  3. Metaphysics Correct answer.
  4. Logic

Explanation

Metaphysics investigates being as being: what exists, what it means to exist, and what basic categories or entities reality contains. Epistemology asks about knowledge, ethics about conduct, and logic about valid inference.

Question 3Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

Aristotle states that philosophy begins with wonder. What does this claim identify as the origin of philosophical inquiry?

  1. Wonder at puzzles in experience Correct answer.
  2. The authority of inherited religious tradition
  3. The pressure of economic necessity
  4. The promise of practical utility

Explanation

Aristotle's remark in the Metaphysics treats wonder as the impulse that leads people to ask why things are as they are. Philosophy arises when ordinary familiarity is disrupted and the inquirer seeks understanding for its own sake.

Question 4Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

Which description best captures the Socratic method as practiced in Plato's early dialogues?

  1. Collecting measurable data through controlled observation
  2. Persuading an audience through emotionally charged speeches
  3. Interpreting inherited texts under religious authority
  4. Questioning interlocutors to expose inconsistencies Correct answer.

Explanation

The Socratic elenchus proceeds by question and answer, testing a proposed definition against cases and drawing out contradictions. Its aim is not to win a debate by rhetoric but to provoke aporia and a more adequate inquiry.

Question 5Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

A philosopher argues: 'All human beings are mortal; Socrates is a human being; therefore Socrates is mortal.' Which feature makes this argument deductively valid?

  1. If the premises are true, the conclusion cannot be false Correct answer.
  2. The conclusion is supported by an analogy between two similar cases drawn from experience
  3. The conclusion is made probable by accumulating a large number of particular observations
  4. The conclusion generalizes from an observed sample to a wider unobserved population

Explanation

Deductive validity concerns the form of an argument: it is impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false. The Socrates syllogism is the standard illustration, and its validity does not depend on the actual truth of the premises.

Question 6Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

Which statement best distinguishes the speculative function of philosophy from its critical function?

  1. Speculative philosophy rejects all systems, while critical philosophy defends inherited doctrines
  2. Speculative philosophy collects empirical data, while critical philosophy conducts laboratory experiments
  3. Speculative philosophy is confined to ethics, while critical philosophy is confined to logic
  4. Speculative philosophy builds systems; critical philosophy examines their assumptions Correct answer.

Explanation

Speculative philosophy aims at broad, systematic accounts of reality, knowledge, or value, while critical philosophy turns back on concepts and claims to test their coherence and limits. The distinction is functional: the same philosopher may engage in both activities.

Question 7Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

Philosophy's scope is often described as 'second-order' or 'reflexive'. What does this mean?

  1. It restricts itself to questions that empirical science has already settled
  2. It examines the concepts and methods of first-order inquiries Correct answer.
  3. It confines itself to cataloguing the opinions of earlier thinkers without assessing them
  4. It studies only the private contents of the philosopher's own mind through introspection

Explanation

Philosophy is second-order when it asks about the concepts, methods, and presuppositions used by first-order inquiries such as physics, history, or everyday reasoning. It is reflexive because reason turns back on its own procedures and claims.

Question 8Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

Edmund Husserl's phenomenological method recommends 'bracketing' (epoché). What does this methodological move involve?

  1. Replacing philosophical description with controlled laboratory experiment
  2. Reducing all meaningful claims to their logical syntax
  3. Suspending the natural attitude to describe phenomena as given Correct answer.
  4. Accepting the natural attitude without examining its assumptions

Explanation

Epoché is the suspension of the 'natural attitude', the everyday assumption that the world simply exists independently of consciousness. Husserl uses this suspension to describe phenomena as they are given in experience, not to deny the world's existence.

Question 9Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

Which pairing correctly matches a philosopher with a characteristic methodological contribution?

  1. Descartes - inductive generalization from sensory observation alone
  2. Hegel - dialectical method resolving contradictions in a developing whole Correct answer.
  3. Locke - transcendental deduction of the categories of understanding
  4. Hume - phenomenological suspension of the natural attitude

Explanation

Hegel's dialectic treats apparent contradictions as stages within a developing rational whole rather than as mere errors to be discarded. The other pairings misattribute methods: Descartes is associated with methodological doubt and deduction, Locke with empiricism, and Hume with empiricist skepticism rather than epoché.

Question 10Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

Which question belongs to epistemology rather than to metaphysics, ethics, or aesthetics?

  1. What makes an action morally right?
  2. What is beauty?
  3. What justifies a belief as knowledge? Correct answer.
  4. What ultimately exists?

Explanation

Epistemology asks what knowledge is, how beliefs are justified, and what counts as evidence. Questions about what exists belong to metaphysics, questions about right action to ethics, and questions about beauty to aesthetics.

Question 11Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

Within the traditional division of philosophy into branches, which field systematically studies the form and validity of arguments rather than the content of particular claims?

  1. Ethics
  2. Aesthetics
  3. Logic Correct answer.
  4. Metaphysics

Explanation

Logic is the branch of philosophy that studies argument form, validity, and inference. It asks whether a conclusion follows from premises, leaving the subject matter of those premises to other branches. Ethics and aesthetics concern value, while metaphysics concerns being and reality.

Question 12Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

When philosophy describes ethics as a 'normative' discipline, what does 'normative' mean in this context?

  1. It restricts moral inquiry to legal statutes.
  2. It prescribes standards for how people ought to act. Correct answer.
  3. It reports statistically how people actually behave.
  4. It denies that moral statements can be evaluated.

Explanation

In philosophy, 'normative' marks inquiry into standards or norms that prescribe how things ought to be. Ethics is normative because it evaluates conduct and character against such standards. Descriptive inquiry, by contrast, reports how things are.

Question 13Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

Introductory accounts often contrast philosophical inquiry with mythological and religious worldviews. Which feature is most characteristic of philosophical inquiry in this contrast?

  1. Deference to traditional authority as the final test of truth
  2. Appeal to sacred texts as the only source of explanation
  3. Reliance on ritual practice to settle theoretical disputes
  4. Use of publicly examinable reasons and arguments Correct answer.

Explanation

Philosophical inquiry is typically distinguished by its insistence on reasons, arguments, and critical scrutiny that others can assess. Mythological and religious worldviews may also contain reasons, but the contrast highlights philosophy's commitment to public argument rather than mere authority or ritual. The other options name sources of authority or practice rather than argumentative justification.

Question 14Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

Which statement best expresses the relationship between philosophy and the natural sciences in introductory accounts of philosophy's scope?

  1. Philosophy replaces the sciences once empirical data become available.
  2. Philosophy is a branch of physics concerned with measuring natural phenomena.
  3. Philosophy is limited to repeating the experimental findings of the sciences.
  4. Philosophy examines the concepts, assumptions, and methods that the sciences employ. Correct answer.

Explanation

Philosophy does not compete with the sciences by producing experimental data; it examines the concepts, presuppositions, and methods that scientific inquiry relies on. This reflective role is why philosophy is sometimes called a second-order discipline. It can criticize or clarify science without replacing it.

Question 15Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

René Descartes employs hyperbolic doubt as a philosophical method primarily in order to...

  1. locate a foundation of knowledge that cannot be doubted. Correct answer.
  2. prove that the external world can never be known at all.
  3. replace logical argument with psychological introspection.
  4. show that all beliefs are equally unreliable in practice.

Explanation

Descartes uses hyperbolic doubt to suspend assent to any belief that can be doubted, aiming to find something indubitable. The method is constructive rather than a permanent skepticism, since the cogito emerges as a foundation. It is a rational method, not merely introspection or a claim that all beliefs are equally unreliable.

Question 16Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

When an analytic philosopher engages in conceptual analysis, the central aim is to...

  1. persuade an audience by appealing to emotional examples.
  2. clarify the conditions under which a concept correctly applies. Correct answer.
  3. discover new empirical laws through controlled experiments.
  4. gather survey data about how often a word is used.

Explanation

Conceptual analysis seeks to make a concept precise by identifying the conditions under which it applies, often by giving necessary and sufficient conditions or a clarifying account. It is not an empirical survey, an experimental science, or rhetorical persuasion. Its aim is clarity about meaning and use.

Question 17Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

In the interpretation of a difficult philosophical text, the principle of charity directs a reader to...

  1. accept every sentence of the text as literally true.
  2. attribute the most coherent and rational position the text can bear. Correct answer.
  3. reject any argument whose terminology is unfamiliar.
  4. ignore the author's historical context completely.

Explanation

The principle of charity asks interpreters to attribute the most rational, coherent position compatible with the text rather than to seize on apparent errors. It does not require literal acceptance of every sentence, nor does it license ignoring context or rejecting unfamiliar terminology. The aim is to make the best sense of what is said before criticizing it.

Question 18Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

What is the primary methodological role of thought experiments in philosophy?

  1. They establish historical facts about past philosophers.
  2. They test how concepts and principles apply to imagined cases. Correct answer.
  3. They generate statistical evidence about actual populations.
  4. They replace the need for explicit premises and conclusions.

Explanation

Thought experiments isolate conceptual questions by describing imagined cases and asking what follows for a principle or concept. They are not surveys, substitutes for argument, or historical evidence. Their force depends on the clarity of the case and the argument built around it.

Question 19Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

In Hegel's dialectical method, the movement from thesis through antithesis to synthesis is best understood as...

  1. a movement that preserves and elevates opposed moments in a higher unity. Correct answer.
  2. a formal proof that derives its conclusions from self-evident axioms.
  3. a return to immediate sense-certainty as the final and unquestionable truth.
  4. a technique for refuting an opponent's position without advancing one's own.

Explanation

Hegelian dialectic treats opposition not as a mere refutation but as a moment that is preserved and elevated in a higher unity. The movement is developmental and conceptual, not a formal deduction from axioms or a return to immediate sense-certainty. It also differs from eristic refutation, which seeks victory rather than a richer position.

Question 20Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

The hermeneutic circle, considered as a method of interpretation, refers to...

  1. the interplay between understanding a whole text and understanding its parts. Correct answer.
  2. the conflict between religious faith and philosophical reason.
  3. the repetition of historical cycles across different civilizations.
  4. the circular reasoning involved in deducing conclusions from themselves.

Explanation

The hermeneutic circle names the reciprocal process by which interpreters understand a text's parts in light of the whole and the whole in light of its parts. It is not the logical fallacy of circular reasoning, nor a theory of historical cycles or faith versus reason. The circle is productive because each pass can refine interpretation.

Question 21Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

Which thinker is traditionally said to have been the first to describe himself as a 'philosopher' (lover of wisdom) rather than as a 'sophos' (wise person)?

  1. Socrates
  2. Thales
  3. Plato
  4. Pythagoras Correct answer.

Explanation

Diogenes Laërtius reports that Pythagoras introduced the term 'philosophos,' distinguishing the lover of wisdom from the person who already possesses it. Thales is conventionally called the first philosopher, but the self-description is attributed to Pythagoras. Socrates and Plato wrote no such claim.

Question 22Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

A researcher reasons: 'Every observed swan has been white; therefore the next swan observed will probably be white.' Which methodological pattern does this reasoning exhibit?

  1. Deductive validity
  2. Reductio ad absurdum
  3. Inductive generalization Correct answer.
  4. Conceptual analysis

Explanation

Inductive generalization moves from a finite set of observed instances to a broader or probabilistic conclusion about unobserved cases. Because the premises do not guarantee the conclusion, induction is ampliative rather than truth-preserving. The sample argument has exactly this form.

Question 23Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

John Rawls's method of 'reflective equilibrium' is best described as which philosophical procedure?

  1. Testing a principle by asking whether its universal adoption would be self-defeating
  2. Adjusting general principles and particular judgments until they cohere Correct answer.
  3. Deriving moral principles deductively from self-evident axioms
  4. Ranking theories solely by their practical consequences

Explanation

Reflective equilibrium is a coherence method: we revise general principles and particular considered judgments in light of one another until they form a mutually supportive set. It does not begin from indubitable axioms, nor does it reduce justification to practical consequences. The universalizability test belongs to Kant.

Question 24Introduction to Philosophy: meaning, nature, scope and methods

Ordinary language philosophers such as J. L. Austin and the later Wittgenstein treat many traditional problems as arising from what?

  1. The failure of formal logic to capture quantifier scope
  2. Misunderstanding how words are used in everyday contexts Correct answer.
  3. The inherent limits of human reason in grasping noumenal reality
  4. The historical influence of religious dogma on philosophical vocabulary

Explanation

Ordinary language philosophy diagnoses many traditional puzzles as confusions produced by ignoring or distorting the everyday use of words. Austin and the later Wittgenstein recommend attending to actual linguistic practice rather than building speculative systems. The aim is often therapeutic dissolution of the problem.

Question 25Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

Which of the following questions belongs to metaphysics rather than to epistemology, logic, or ethics?

  1. What makes an argument valid?
  2. How can testimony justify belief?
  3. Does every event have a cause? Correct answer.
  4. How should scarce resources be distributed?

Explanation

Metaphysics investigates the fundamental structure of reality, including causation, existence, substance, and identity. Asking whether every event has a cause is a question about what the world is like, not about how we know it. The other options concern justification, inference, and distributive norms, which belong to epistemology, logic, and ethics respectively.

Question 26Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

In propositional logic, an argument is valid exactly when which of the following holds?

  1. Its premises make the conclusion more probable than not.
  2. Every one of its premises is true in the actual world.
  3. Its conclusion is accepted as true by most competent reasoners.
  4. The premises cannot be true while the conclusion is false. Correct answer.

Explanation

Validity is a formal relation between premises and conclusion: there is no possible situation in which all the premises are true and the conclusion false. Truth of premises is a separate matter, belonging to soundness rather than validity. Validity also does not depend on what reasoners happen to accept or on merely probabilistic support.

Question 27Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

Which claim is characteristic of act utilitarianism?

  1. Actions are right when they respect duties regardless of consequences.
  2. An action is right when it produces the greatest net well-being. Correct answer.
  3. Actions are right when they follow rules that rational agents could universalize.
  4. Actions are right when they express a virtuous character.

Explanation

Act utilitarianism evaluates each individual action by its consequences, holding that the right action maximizes overall net well-being. It is a consequentialist theory, so it does not treat duties or character as fundamental. Universalizability belongs to Kantian ethics and virtue belongs to virtue ethics.

Question 28Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

A Gettier case is designed to establish which of the following conclusions?

  1. Justified true belief is not sufficient for knowledge Correct answer.
  2. Justified true belief is sufficient for knowledge
  3. Justification is entirely irrelevant to whether a belief counts as knowledge
  4. Knowledge demands infallible certainty rather than mere justification

Explanation

Gettier cases present beliefs that are justified and true but true only through epistemic luck, so they are not knowledge. They therefore refute the traditional analysis that justified true belief is sufficient for knowledge. The cases do not show that justification is irrelevant, only that it is not enough on its own.

Question 29Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

Consider this inference: "If it rained, the street is wet. The street is wet. Therefore it rained." Which fallacy does the inference commit?

  1. Begging the question
  2. Equivocation
  3. Affirming the consequent Correct answer.
  4. Denying the antecedent

Explanation

The second premise affirms the consequent of the conditional, and the conclusion affirms the antecedent, which is invalid because the street could be wet for other reasons. Denying the antecedent would instead deny the antecedent and conclude the negation of the consequent. Begging the question and equivocation involve circularity and shifted meaning, neither of which occurs here.

Question 30Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

A shopkeeper considers lying to a customer to increase profit. On Kant's categorical imperative, the decisive test of the proposed lie is whether which of the following is true?

  1. The lie maximizes total happiness in this case
  2. The lie expresses a character trait a virtuous person would avoid
  3. The maxim of the action could be willed as a universal law Correct answer.
  4. The customer would consent if fully informed

Explanation

Kant's first formulation requires that the maxim of an action be universalizable without contradiction. A maxim permitting deceptive promises for profit cannot be consistently willed as a universal law, because it would destroy the practice of promising on which it depends. Happiness maximization and character assessment belong to other ethical frameworks.

Question 31Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

For Kant, a judgment of beauty is disinterested in the sense that it does which of the following?

  1. Takes no interest in the object's existence Correct answer.
  2. Is based on personal sensory gratification
  3. Merely reports the statistical preferences of a culture
  4. Rests on a concept of what the object is for

Explanation

Kant's disinterestedness means the pleasure in beauty is not tied to desire for the object or to its actual existence, unlike liking what is merely agreeable or good. The judgment concerns the mere form of the representation as felt in reflective pleasure. It is therefore neither conceptually determined nor a report of empirical taste statistics.

Question 32Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

Hume's bundle theory holds that the self is which of the following?

  1. A simple, unchanging soul-substance
  2. A bodily continuity grounded in the same living organism
  3. A narrative construction unified by a first-person story
  4. Nothing over and above a bundle of perceptions Correct answer.

Explanation

Hume denies any impression of a persisting self and concludes that the self is only a collection of perceptions to which we mistakenly attribute unity. On his view, introspection reveals particular perceptions, never a simple owner of them. Substance, bodily, and narrative accounts all posit more unity than the bundle theory allows.

Question 33Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

A foundationalist responds to the regress of justification by claiming which of the following?

  1. An infinite chain of justification is epistemically acceptable
  2. Justification depends solely on the reliability of the belief-forming process
  3. Some beliefs are justified without deriving it from other beliefs Correct answer.
  4. Justification consists in coherence among the whole set of beliefs

Explanation

Foundationalism stops the regress by positing basic beliefs that are justified non-inferentially, for example by experience or self-evidence, and that support further beliefs. Coherentism instead accepts a holistic circle, while infinitism embraces an endless chain. Reliabilism is a separate account of what makes a belief justified.

Question 34Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

On Arthur Danto's institutional account, something becomes an artwork primarily because of which of the following?

  1. It is recognized as art within an artworld framework Correct answer.
  2. It evokes a special aesthetic emotion in qualified viewers
  3. It displays significant formal unity and complexity
  4. It is produced with the intention to imitate nature

Explanation

Danto's account treats art status as conferred by an artworld, the network of theories, critics, institutions, and history that makes an object interpretable as art. This explains how ordinary objects can become artworks without possessing distinctive perceptual features. Aesthetic response, formal unity, and imitation are independent criteria that the institutional view does not treat as definitive.

Question 35Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

In Aristotelian categorical logic, the proposition 'No whales are fish' has which form?

  1. I proposition (particular affirmative)
  2. E proposition (universal negative) Correct answer.
  3. A proposition (universal affirmative)
  4. O proposition (particular negative)

Explanation

An E proposition is a universal negative: it asserts that no members of the subject class fall under the predicate. 'No whales are fish' has the form 'No S are P,' so it is an E proposition; A is universal affirmative, I particular affirmative, and O particular negative.

Question 36Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

The traditional tripartite analysis of knowledge defines knowledge as which of the following?

  1. Justified true belief Correct answer.
  2. True belief that cannot be defeated by any evidence
  3. Belief produced by a reliable cognitive faculty
  4. Belief that is held with absolute certainty

Explanation

The tripartite analysis treats knowledge as belief that is true and justified. Each of the three conditions was traditionally taken to be necessary, and jointly sufficient, until Gettier-style cases challenged sufficiency. Reliabilism and indefeasibility are alternative or added conditions, not the traditional definition.

Question 37Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

Which of the following is a first-order question of normative ethics rather than a metaethical question?

  1. Do moral properties supervene on natural properties?
  2. Are moral judgments objectively true or merely expressive?
  3. What does the word 'good' mean in moral contexts?
  4. Is capital punishment morally justified? Correct answer.

Explanation

Normative ethics asks substantive questions about which actions or practices are right or wrong and which principles should guide conduct. Asking whether capital punishment is morally justified is first-order because it seeks a moral verdict; the other options concern meaning, truth-aptness, or metaphysical dependence, which are metaethical.

Question 38Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

David Lewis's modal realism is the view that possible worlds are which of the following?

  1. Concrete universes spatiotemporally isolated from the actual world Correct answer.
  2. Abstract representations that encode ways things could have been
  3. Impossible objects that cannot be fully described
  4. Linguistic conventions for sorting counterfactual sentences

Explanation

Lewis held that possible worlds are just as concrete and real as the actual world, which is merely the world we inhabit. They are not abstract representations or linguistic devices, and they are not impossible objects; each is a maximal spatiotemporally connected whole.

Question 39Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

Maya's belief that a painting is Renaissance is justified because it coheres with her beliefs about style, provenance, and art history, even though no single belief serves as a foundation. This best illustrates which epistemological position?

  1. Foundationalism
  2. Coherentism Correct answer.
  3. Reliabilism
  4. Evidentialism

Explanation

Coherentism holds that a belief is justified by its coherence with a system of other beliefs rather than by resting on a self-evident foundation. Maya's justification depends on mutual support among her art-historical beliefs. Foundationalism would require basic beliefs; reliabilism would focus on the belief-forming process; evidentialism would focus on the evidence she possesses.

Question 40Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

In propositional logic, the material conditional P → Q is logically equivalent to which formula?

  1. P ∨ ¬Q
  2. ¬P ∨ Q Correct answer.
  3. ¬P ∧ Q
  4. P ∧ ¬Q

Explanation

A material conditional is false only when P is true and Q is false. The disjunction ¬P ∨ Q has exactly that truth table: it is true whenever P is false or Q is true. The other formulas differ on at least one assignment.

Question 41Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

A virtue ethicist deciding whether to volunteer at a shelter would primarily ask which of the following?

  1. Does the action violate anyone's rights?
  2. Will the action maximize total happiness?
  3. Does the action conform to a universal law?
  4. What would a practically wise person do here? Correct answer.

Explanation

Virtue ethics evaluates actions by reference to character traits and the judgment of a practically wise person, rather than by a rule or a calculus of outcomes. The happiness question is consequentialist, the universal-law question is Kantian, and the rights question is rights-based.

Question 42Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

The intentional fallacy, as discussed by Wimsatt and Beardsley, warns against which critical practice?

  1. Attending to the emotional responses of readers or viewers
  2. Comparing a work with earlier works in the same tradition
  3. Judging a work by its formal unity and complexity
  4. Interpreting a work primarily through the artist's stated intentions Correct answer.

Explanation

Wimsatt and Beardsley argued that the artist's intention is not available as a standard for judging a literary work and that appealing to it confuses the work with its origins. Criticism should focus on the work itself rather than on the author's private aims. Their related warning against judging by emotional response is the affective fallacy.

Question 43Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

A perdurantist about persistence holds that a material object persists through time by which of the following?

  1. Having distinct temporal parts located at different times Correct answer.
  2. Being identical to an unchanging substratum beneath its properties
  3. Being a bundle of simultaneous sensory impressions
  4. Existing wholly at every moment of its existence

Explanation

Perdurantism, or four-dimensionalism, treats persistence as analogous to spatial extension: an object is a whole composed of temporal parts, and it is only partly present at each time. Endurantism, by contrast, says the object is wholly present at each moment. The substratum and bundle options concern substance and self, not persistence.

Question 44Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

The problem of the criterion in epistemology concerns which of the following difficulties?

  1. How to resolve persistent disagreement among epistemic peers
  2. How criteria and particular cases of knowledge avoid circular support Correct answer.
  3. Whether perceptual beliefs are caused by reliable processes
  4. How deductive inference can be justified without circularity

Explanation

The problem of the criterion asks how one can identify a criterion of knowledge without already using particular instances of knowledge, and how one can identify particular instances without already using a criterion. This threatens a circle between general criteria and particular cases. The other options concern deduction, reliabilism, and peer disagreement.

Question 45Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

Which condition must an argument satisfy in order to be sound?

  1. Its premises are all true, whether or not it is valid.
  2. Its conclusion is self-evident and its premises are accepted by experts.
  3. It is valid and all its premises are true. Correct answer.
  4. It is valid and its conclusion is true.

Explanation

An argument is sound only if it is valid and every premise is actually true; validity alone guarantees merely that the conclusion follows from the premises. A true conclusion does not repair false premises, and expert acceptance is not a logical criterion of soundness.

Question 46Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

Ethical egoism is the normative view that each person ought to do which of the following?

  1. Maximize his or her own self-interest. Correct answer.
  2. Cultivate character traits approved by the community.
  3. Follow rules that could be universalized.
  4. Promote the greatest happiness of the greatest number.

Explanation

Ethical egoism is a normative theory saying each agent ought to pursue his or her own self-interest, not overall welfare, universalizable rules, or community-approved traits. It differs from psychological egoism, which is a descriptive claim about motivation.

Question 47Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

Which position holds that aesthetic judgments express the speaker's feelings rather than report objective features of the object?

  1. Aesthetic formalism
  2. Aesthetic cognitivism
  3. Aesthetic expressivism Correct answer.
  4. Aesthetic realism

Explanation

Aesthetic expressivism treats judgments such as 'this is beautiful' as expressions of affective response rather than descriptions of mind-independent aesthetic facts. Realism and cognitivism generally treat aesthetic judgments as truth-apt, while formalism focuses on formal properties.

Question 48Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

A reliabilist about epistemic justification holds that a belief is justified when it is which of the following?

  1. Produced by a process that reliably yields true beliefs. Correct answer.
  2. Held with subjective certainty by the believer.
  3. Coherent with the believer's entire web of belief.
  4. Supported by an infinite chain of further beliefs.

Explanation

Reliabilism justifies a belief by the reliability of the cognitive process that produced it, such as perception or memory when functioning well. It does not require an infinite chain, subjective certainty, or coherence with a whole web of belief.

Question 49Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

Presentism in the philosophy of time is the thesis that which of the following is the case?

  1. Past, present, and future times all exist equally.
  2. Time is an illusion generated by the mind.
  3. Only the present moment and present entities exist. Correct answer.
  4. The future is open while the past and present exist.

Explanation

Presentism says that only present entities and the present moment are real, so past and future times do not exist in the way the present does. Eternalism instead treats all times as equally real, and growing-block views treat the past and present as real while denying the future.

Question 50Branches of Philosophy: metaphysics, epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics

In the traditional square of opposition, which pair of categorical propositions is contradictory?

  1. A and I
  2. I and O
  3. A and O Correct answer.
  4. A and E

Explanation

Contradictory propositions cannot both be true and cannot both be false. In the traditional square, the universal affirmative A and the particular negative O are contradictory, as are E and I.