Ethics and Moral Philosophy
Normative theories
- Consequentialism judges acts by outcomes; utilitarianism seeks the greatest happiness.
- Deontology judges acts by duty and intention; Kant's categorical imperative tests maxims for universalisability and treats persons as ends.
- Virtue ethics asks what a flourishing person would do; eudaimonia and practical wisdom are central.
Metaethics and concepts
Metaethics asks whether moral claims are truth-apt (cognitivism) and objectively true (realism). Intention, foresight, double effect and moral luck affect judgement. Distinguish act- from rule-utilitarianism. In double effect, an unintended bad consequence may be foreseen but not used as a means, under specified conditions.
Worked example
A runaway trolley can be diverted to kill one instead of five. Act-utilitarian reasoning favours diverting; deontological reasoning asks whether the act uses the one merely as a means. If the one is diverted onto, not used as a tool, some deontologists permit it; if pushed, Kantian respect for persons blocks it. Reasoning must state the principle, apply it, and consider objections.
Traps
- Treating the categorical imperative as 'do whatever maximises happiness'.
- Confusing virtue ethics with rule-following or mere niceness.
- Ignoring the difference between what is legal and what is morally required.