BSEH SS Political Science key terms

A grouping of states formed in 1961 at Belgrade that refused to join either Cold War bloc, promoting sovereignty, anti-colonialism and development. It gave newly independent Asian and African nations a collective voice.

The 1955 Afro-Asian meeting in Indonesia where twenty-nine states endorsed anti-colonialism, racial equality and peaceful coexistence. It is regarded as the political forerunner of the Non-Aligned Movement.

The Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence signed by India and China in 1954, covering mutual respect for sovereignty, non-aggression, non-interference, equality and peaceful settlement of disputes. They became a cornerstone of India's non-aligned diplomacy.

The prolonged geopolitical rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union and their allies after 1945, fought through arms races, alliances, propaganda and proxy wars rather than direct combat between the two superpowers.

The American strategy, articulated by George Kennan, of preventing the spread of Soviet influence through alliances, economic aid and military presence. It shaped US policy in Europe and Asia throughout the Cold War.

A period of relaxed tension between the superpowers in the 1970s marked by arms control talks and improved dialogue. It was later undermined by renewed confrontation in the late 1970s and 1980s.

The barrier erected in 1961 dividing East and West Berlin, symbolising the division of Europe. Its opening in November 1989 became the most visible sign that the Cold War order was collapsing.

The break-up of the USSR in December 1991 into fifteen independent republics following economic crisis, nationalist movements and failed reform. It ended the bipolar world and left the United States as the sole superpower.

A loose association formed in 1991 by most former Soviet republics to coordinate on trade, security and other matters. It was intended to manage relations after the USSR dissolved but has limited authority.

The rapid transition to market economies attempted in post-communist states through privatisation, price liberalisation and spending cuts. In Russia it produced severe hardship and concentrated wealth in a few hands.

A distribution of global power in which one state dominates militarily, economically and institutionally. Commentators applied the term to the post-Cold War position of the United States.

Leadership exercised by a dominant state through a mix of military capability, economic strength, institutional influence and cultural appeal rather than coercion alone. It is sustained by consent as much as by force.

The ability to influence others through attraction, culture, values and legitimacy instead of payment or coercion. It is a key component of hegemony and is exercised through media, education and norms.

The International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, created in 1944 to stabilise currencies and finance reconstruction and development. Their voting systems give wealthy states, notably the United States, decisive influence.

A package of loan conditions imposed by international financial institutions requiring borrowing states to liberalise trade, privatise assets and cut public spending. Critics argue such programmes undermine welfare and national policy autonomy.

A world order in which two rival blocs, led by the United States and the Soviet Union, dominated international politics. Alliances such as NATO and the Warsaw Pact organised most states around one of the two poles.

A distribution of power shared among several major states or regional blocs rather than one or two. Analysts debate whether the rise of China, the EU and others has produced such a system today.

A supranational union of European states with a single market, common institutions and pooled sovereignty in many policy areas. It is a major economic power, though defence and foreign policy remain largely intergovernmental.

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, founded in 1967 to promote regional cooperation and stability. It works through consultation and consensus and has expanded to include most Southeast Asian states.

The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, established in 1985 to foster regional development. Its effectiveness is limited by India-Pakistan tensions and weak enforcement mechanisms.

A 2004 agreement among SAARC members to reduce tariffs and expand intra-regional trade. Implementation has been uneven because of political disputes and non-tariff barriers.

India's strategy from the early 1990s of deepening economic and strategic ties with Southeast and East Asia. It later broadened into an Act East approach covering connectivity and security cooperation.

The UN organ responsible for maintaining international peace and security, with five permanent members holding veto power and ten elected members. Reform of its membership is a long-standing demand of India and others.

The global organisation founded in 1945 to maintain peace, promote human rights and foster cooperation. Its principal organs include the General Assembly, Security Council, Secretariat and International Court of Justice.

UN operations deploying multinational forces, usually with consent of the parties, to monitor ceasefires and protect civilians. India has been among the largest and longest-serving contributors of troops.

The right of each permanent member of the UN Security Council to block any substantive resolution. It has been used frequently to protect the interests of the permanent five and is central to reform debates.

The principle that aggression against one state is treated as aggression against all, to be met by joint action. It underpins the UN Charter but has been applied inconsistently because of great-power rivalry.

The growing interdependence of economies and societies through trade, investment, technology and migration. It brings growth and cultural exchange but also inequality, job displacement and pressure on local industries.

The removal or reduction of state controls over economic activity, including licensing, tariffs and foreign investment. India adopted it in 1991 to address a balance-of-payments crisis and accelerate growth.

The body established in 1995 to regulate international trade and settle disputes among members. Developing countries have criticised its rules on agriculture and intellectual property as favouring richer states.

Development that meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. It integrates economic growth, social equity and environmental protection, as reflected in the Rio principles.

Long-term shifts in temperature and weather patterns driven mainly by greenhouse gas emissions from burning fossil fuels. International negotiations divide states over historical responsibility and financing for mitigation and adaptation.

Centralised development programmes setting targets for investment and output, launched in India in 1951 under the Planning Commission. They guided public investment until the planning framework was wound down in 2014-15.

An economic system combining private enterprise with state ownership and regulation. India's post-independence model placed heavy industry and infrastructure in the public sector while leaving agriculture and trade largely private.

The adoption from the late 1960s of high-yielding seed varieties, irrigation, fertilisers and pesticides, which sharply raised wheat and rice output in India. It reduced food imports but widened regional and social inequalities.

A party system in which one party consistently wins elections and forms government for an extended period while opposition parties remain legal and active. The Indian National Congress exemplified this from 1952 to 1967.

Government formed by an alliance of parties that must share power and negotiate policy. It became the norm in India from 1989 and has produced unstable and stable multiparty governments alike.

The period when fundamental rights were suspended and civil liberties curtailed under the maintenance of internal security laws. It followed a court ruling against the Prime Minister and ended with the 1977 election.

The process of creating a shared political identity and effective institutions within a state's boundaries. In India it involved integrating princely states, redrawing linguistic boundaries and managing religious and regional diversity.

The redrawing of Indian state boundaries along language lines, culminating in the States Reorganisation Act of 1956. It accommodated regional identity demands but also sharpened linguistic politics.

Demands by a region within a state for greater autonomy, recognition of identity or separate statehood. In India they range from movements accommodated through federal bargaining to violent secessionist struggles.

The constitutional principle that the state has no official religion and treats all faiths impartially, while permitting reform of religious practice. India's version involves principled distance rather than strict separation.