Odisha CHSE +2 Vocational Crop Production cheat sheet

Agronomy is the science of field crop production and soil management; its scope excludes horticulture (garden crops) and forestry.

Cropping intensity (%) = (gross cropped area ÷ net sown area) × 100; values above 100 indicate multiple cropping on the same land in one year.

Cropping system types: sole cropping, mixed cropping (two or more crops sown together without row arrangement), intercropping (row-arranged), sequence cropping, and relay cropping.

Intercropping advantage is measured by Land Equivalent Ratio (LER); LER > 1 means the intercrop yields more than the same crops grown separately.

LER = (Y1 intercrop ÷ Y1 sole) + (Y2 intercrop ÷ Y2 sole); additive series and replacement series are the two intercrop designs.

Classification by life cycle: annual (maize, rice, cowpea), biennial (sugar beet, onion), perennial (sugarcane, banana, forage grasses).

Classification by season in Odisha: kharif (June–October, monsoon), rabi (October–March, winter), and summer/pre-kharif (March–June) crops.

Growth analysis terms: CGR (crop growth rate, g m⁻² day⁻¹), RGR (relative growth rate), NAR (net assimilation rate), LAI (leaf area index), and harvest index (economic yield ÷ biological yield).

Soil texture classes follow the textural triangle by percentages of sand (2.0–0.05 mm), silt (0.05–0.002 mm), and clay (<0.002 mm) using the International pipette method.

Stokes' law governs particle settling in sedimentation analysis: larger particles settle faster, so sand settles before silt and clay.

Bulk density = oven-dry soil mass ÷ total volume (g cm⁻³); particle density is about 2.65 g cm⁻³ for most mineral soils.

Porosity (%) = [1 − (bulk density ÷ particle density)] × 100; a bulk density of 1.33 g cm⁻³ gives about 50% porosity.

Soil pH classes: strongly acid <5.5, moderately acid 5.5–6.5, neutral 6.5–7.5, alkaline 7.5–8.5, strongly alkaline >8.5; most field crops perform best at pH 6.0–7.5.

Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is measured in cmol(p⁺) kg⁻¹ (formerly meq/100 g); base saturation = (sum of exchangeable bases ÷ CEC) × 100.

Soil erosion by water follows the Universal Soil Loss Equation: A = R × K × LS × C × P, where each factor is a multiplier.

Soil profile horizons: O (organic litter), A (topsoil, maximum biological activity), E (eluviation), B (illuviation/accumulation), C (weathered parent material), R (bedrock).

Essential elements: 17 in total - C, H, O (from air and water), macronutrients N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, and micronutrients Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Mo, Cl, Ni.

Criteria of essentiality (Arnon and Stout): the element is indispensable for completion of the life cycle, its deficiency is specific to it, and it is directly involved in plant metabolism.

Law of the minimum (Liebig): yield is limited by the nutrient in shortest supply relative to crop need, not by the nutrients present in excess.

Mobility in plants: N, P, K, Mg are mobile, so deficiency appears first on older leaves; Ca, B, Fe, S are immobile, so deficiency appears on younger leaves.

Fertilizer grade N-P₂O₅-K₂O: urea is 46-0-0, single superphosphate 0-16-0 (plus ~11–12% S), DAP 18-46-0, and muriate of potash 0-0-60.

Nutrient dose from fertilizer: fertilizer needed (kg) = (recommended nutrient kg ha⁻¹ × 100) ÷ percent nutrient content of the fertilizer.

Integrated nutrient management combines organic manures, biofertilizers (Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum, phosphate-solubilizing bacteria), and mineral fertilizers to sustain soil health.

Deficiency symptoms: N - pale older leaves and stunted growth; P - purplish older leaves and poor root development; K - marginal leaf scorch; Zn - interveinal chlorosis and little leaf; B - hollow heart or cracked stem.

Plant introduction is the cheapest breeding method; it is followed by selection and adaptation trials before release.

Selection methods: mass selection (bulk of superior plants, used in cross-pollinated crops), pure line selection (single plant progeny, used in self-pollinated crops), and clonal selection (vegetatively propagated crops).

Hybridization types: emasculation and pollination for self-pollinated crops; selfing and crossing designs for cross-pollinated crops; backcross breeding transfers a single gene into a recurrent parent.

Mutation breeding uses physical mutagens (gamma rays, X-rays, fast neutrons) or chemical mutagens (EMS, sodium azide); examples include mutant varieties of rice and groundnut.

Heterosis (hybrid vigour) is the superiority of F₁ over parents; it is exploited commercially in maize, sorghum, pearl millet, and hybrid rice.

Male sterility systems (CMS, GMS, TGMS) enable hybrid seed production in rice and other crops without hand emasculation.

Polyploidy breeding: colchicine induces chromosome doubling, producing autotetraploids such as tetraploid cotton and tetraploid rye.

Variety release requires All India Coordinated Research Project trials, State Variety Release Committee approval, and notification in the Official Gazette for certified seed production.

Seed classes in the certification chain: breeder seed → foundation seed → certified seed → truthfully labelled seed.

Seed germination (%) = (number of normal seedlings ÷ total seeds tested) × 100, tested on standard germination media under controlled temperature and humidity.

Seed vigour is assessed by accelerated ageing, electrical conductivity, and tetrazolium tests; it predicts field establishment better than germination percentage alone.

Physical purity (%) = (pure seed weight ÷ total sample weight) × 100; it includes pure seed, other crop seed, weed seed, and inert matter.

Seed rate (kg ha⁻¹) = (desired plant population m⁻² × test weight g × 100) ÷ (germination % × purity % × field establishment %).

Seed treatment sequence: fungicide and insecticide slurry treatment, followed by biofertilizer inoculation (Rhizobium for legumes) immediately before sowing.

Seed storage: moisture below 8–10% for cereals, cool dry conditions; orthodox seeds tolerate desiccation, recalcitrant seeds (mango, jackfruit, rubber) do not.

Varietal selection criteria: recommended for the agro-climatic zone, maturity duration matching the cropping window, pest and disease resistance, and certified seed source.

Rice: nursery of 20–25 days, transplanting at 2–3 seedlings hill⁻¹ with 20 × 15 cm spacing; lowland puddled transplanting is the standard Odisha kharif method.

Rice yield components: panicles m⁻², spikelets panicle⁻¹, spikelet fertility (%), and 1000-grain weight; yield (t ha⁻¹) = (panicles m⁻² × grains panicle⁻¹ × test weight g) ÷ 100,000.

Maize: separate male (tassel) and female (cob) inflorescence; detasseling in the female rows is essential for hybrid seed production.

Pulses: Rhizobium inoculation, seed treatment with fungicide, and phosphorus at sowing; cowpea, blackgram, greengram, and pigeonpea are major kharif pulses in Odisha.

Pigeonpea and greengram are often intercropped; pulses fix atmospheric nitrogen, typically 20–60 kg N ha⁻¹ per season.

Oilseeds: groundnut requires calcium at pegging (gypsum at 200–400 kg ha⁻¹); mustard requires sulphur for oil synthesis; sesame and niger are Odisha oilseeds.

Groundnut yield is determined by pods plant⁻¹, kernels pod⁻¹, and kernel weight; gypsum and boron improve kernel filling.

Crop geometry: plant population (plants ha⁻¹) = 10,000 ÷ (row spacing m × plant spacing m).

Sugarcane: commercial crop propagated by setts with 2–3 buds; planting seasons are autumn (September–October) and spring (February–March).

Sugarcane yield and quality: cane yield (t ha⁻¹), sugar recovery (%), and CCS (commercial cane sugar) percent determine grower returns.

Coconut: perennial palm, cross-pollinated, seedlings planted at 7.5 × 7.5 m; copra and coconut oil are the main products.

Banana: vegetatively propagated by suckers or tissue-cultured plantlets; bunch weight and finger number determine yield.

Vegetables: nursery raising, transplanting, and staggered planting maintain continuous market supply; cole crops (cabbage, cauliflower) are cool-season crops.

Floriculture and plantation crops require specific spacing, pruning, and post-harvest grading to meet market standards.

Horticultural crop production emphasizes quality attributes (size, colour, firmness, shelf life) in addition to yield.

Irrigation water requirement = evapotranspiration (ET) ÷ irrigation efficiency; field application efficiency for surface irrigation is typically 50–70%.

Water use efficiency (WUE) = crop yield ÷ water consumed (kg grain m⁻³ or kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹).

Critical irrigation stages: rice - panicle initiation and flowering; wheat - crown root initiation and grain filling; groundnut - flowering and pegging.

Irrigation scheduling by IW/CPE ratio: irrigate when the ratio of irrigation water to cumulative pan evaporation reaches a crop-specific value (commonly 0.6–1.0).

Methods of irrigation: surface (flood, furrow, basin), sprinkler, drip, and subsurface; drip and sprinkler achieve 80–90% application efficiency.

Drainage: surface drainage removes excess runoff; subsurface drainage lowers the water table; waterlogging reduces oxygen diffusion and causes yellowing and root rot.

Soil moisture constants: field capacity, permanent wilting point, and available water capacity (field capacity minus permanent wilting point).

Irrigation water quality is judged by electrical conductivity, sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), and residual sodium carbonate (RSC).

Weed classification: grassy (monocots), broadleaf (dicots), and sedges (Cyperus); critical period of crop-weed competition is usually the first 30–45 days after sowing.

Weed control methods: cultural (crop rotation, stale seedbed, mulching), mechanical (hand weeding, hoeing), biological, and chemical (herbicides).

Herbicide selectivity: selective herbicides kill weeds without harming the crop; non-selective herbicides kill all vegetation and are used pre-planting or as directed sprays.

Herbicide application timing: pre-emergence (applied to soil before weed emergence) and post-emergence (applied to emerged weeds).

Insect pest categories: chewing (caterpillars, beetles), sucking (aphids, jassids, whiteflies), and borers; integrated pest management combines cultural, biological, mechanical, and chemical tactics.

Economic threshold level (ETL) is the pest population at which control measures become economically justified; spraying below ETL is wasteful.

Plant disease control: host resistance, crop rotation, seed treatment, and fungicides; bacterial diseases are managed mainly through sanitation and resistant varieties.

Nematode management: crop rotation with non-hosts, resistant varieties, and nematicides; root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne) causes galls on roots.

Tillage implements: primary (mouldboard plough, disc plough) invert and break soil; secondary (harrow, cultivator, roller) prepare a fine seedbed.

Sowing implements: seed drill and planter place seed at uniform depth and spacing; seed-cum-fertilizer drill places fertilizer and seed in one pass.

Farm power: tractor power is rated in horsepower (hp) or kilowatts (kW); 1 hp = 0.746 kW.

Field capacity: theoretical field capacity (ha h⁻¹) = (implement width m × speed km h⁻¹) ÷ 10; effective field capacity = theoretical × field efficiency.

Post-harvest losses occur at harvesting, threshing, drying, storage, and transport; grain moisture of 12–14% is safe for cereal storage.

Drying: sun drying is cheap but weather-dependent; mechanical dryers provide controlled temperature and airflow.

Storage structures: mud bins, metal bins, and hermetic bags; fumigation and proper ventilation control insect infestation.

Value addition: cleaning, grading, milling, and packaging increase market price and reduce post-harvest loss.

Farm management decisions rely on cost concepts: fixed cost, variable cost, total cost, and gross margin (gross return minus variable cost).

Net return = gross return − total cost; benefit-cost ratio = gross return ÷ total cost; a ratio above 1 indicates profitability.

Break-even yield = total fixed cost ÷ (price per unit − variable cost per unit).

Marketing channels: producer → village trader → wholesaler → retailer → consumer; shorter channels raise the producer's share.

Marketable surplus = production − home consumption − seed and other on-farm needs.

Price elasticity of demand = percentage change in quantity demanded ÷ percentage change in price; inelastic demand means price swings sharply with supply.

Farm records and accounts are the basis for credit access and for evaluating enterprise profitability.

Cooperative marketing and regulated markets (mandis) improve price discovery and reduce exploitation by intermediaries.

Sustainable agriculture balances productivity, profitability, and environmental protection across generations.

Organic farming excludes synthetic fertilizers and pesticides; it relies on compost, green manure, crop residues, and biofertilizers.

Green manuring crops (dhaincha, sunhemp) fix nitrogen and add organic matter; dhaincha can add 60–90 kg N ha⁻¹.

Crop rotation with legumes interrupts pest and disease cycles and improves soil nitrogen.

Conservation agriculture: minimum tillage, permanent soil cover, and crop diversification reduce erosion and conserve moisture.

Environmental concerns: nitrate leaching, pesticide residue, soil salinity from over-irrigation, and greenhouse gas emissions from flooded rice.

Integrated farming systems (crop + livestock + fishery) diversify income and recycle nutrients.

Organic certification requires a conversion period (usually 2–3 years) and documented avoidance of prohibited inputs.

Gross margin = gross return − variable cost; it is used to compare enterprises with different fixed costs.

Net return = gross return − total cost; benefit-cost ratio = gross return ÷ total cost; a ratio above 1 indicates profitability.

Break-even yield = total fixed cost ÷ (price per unit − variable cost per unit).

Marketing channels: producer → village trader → wholesaler → retailer → consumer; shorter channels raise the producer's share.

Marketable surplus = production − home consumption − seed and other on-farm needs.

Price elasticity of demand = percentage change in quantity demanded ÷ percentage change in price; inelastic demand means price swings sharply with supply.

Farm records and accounts are the basis for credit access and for evaluating enterprise profitability.

Cooperative marketing and regulated markets (mandis) improve price discovery and reduce exploitation by intermediaries.

Sustainable agriculture balances productivity, profitability, and environmental protection across generations.

Organic farming excludes synthetic fertilizers and pesticides; it relies on compost, green manure, crop residues, and biofertilizers.

Green manuring crops (dhaincha, sunhemp) fix nitrogen and add organic matter; dhaincha can add 60–90 kg N ha⁻¹.

Crop rotation with legumes interrupts pest and disease cycles and improves soil nitrogen.

Conservation agriculture: minimum tillage, permanent soil cover, and crop diversification reduce erosion and conserve moisture.

Environmental concerns: nitrate leaching, pesticide residue, soil salinity from over-irrigation, and greenhouse gas emissions from flooded rice.

Integrated farming systems (crop + livestock + fishery) diversify income and recycle nutrients.

Organic certification requires a conversion period (usually 2–3 years) and documented avoidance of prohibited inputs.

Sustainable agriculture balances productivity, profitability, and environmental protection across generations.

Organic farming excludes synthetic fertilizers and pesticides; it relies on compost, green manure, crop residues, and biofertilizers.

Green manuring crops (dhaincha, sunhemp) fix nitrogen and add organic matter; dhaincha can add 60–90 kg N ha⁻¹.

Crop rotation with legumes interrupts pest and disease cycles and improves soil nitrogen.

Conservation agriculture: minimum tillage, permanent soil cover, and crop diversification reduce erosion and conserve moisture.

Environmental concerns: nitrate leaching, pesticide residue, soil salinity from over-irrigation, and greenhouse gas emissions from flooded rice.

Integrated farming systems (crop + livestock + fishery) diversify income and recycle nutrients.

Organic certification requires a conversion period (usually 2–3 years) and documented avoidance of prohibited inputs.