CHSE Odisha Vocational Dairying (DAI) cheat sheet

Breeding age target for crossbred heifers: first insemination at 13–15 months when body weight reaches 60–65% of mature weight (about 250–280 kg for crossbreds).

Estrous cycle in cattle averages 21 days (range 18–24); estrus lasts 12–18 hours, with ovulation occurring 10–14 hours after the end of standing heat.

Standard insemination rule: breed 12 hours after first standing heat observed; if heat is seen in the evening, inseminate the next morning.

Gestation period: cow about 280 days (range 275–285), buffalo about 310 days (range 305–315).

Dry period of 60 days before calving is required to regenerate alveolar tissue; service period target is 60–90 days after calving.

Feed a balanced ration: maintenance plus 1 kg concentrate per 2.5 kg milk above 5 kg/day for crossbred cows; green fodder 25–30 kg and dry fodder 4–6 kg daily.

Colostrum must be fed within the first hour of birth, 10% of body weight in the first 24 hours, because calf gut absorbs antibodies only for about 24–36 hours.

Deworming schedule: first at 10–15 days of age, then every 3–4 weeks until 6 months, then quarterly; vaccinate against FMD, HS, BQ and brucellosis as per local schedule.

Lactation curve phases: rising phase 0–60 days, peak yield 6–8 weeks post-calving, declining phase thereafter at roughly 6–7% per month.

Milk let-down is triggered by oxytocin release on tactile teat stimulation; effect lasts 5–7 minutes, so milking must begin within 1 minute of preparation.

Fore-stripping into a strip cup before milking detects clinical mastitis (clots, flakes, watery milk) and discards high-somatic-cell foremilk.

Clean-in-place sequence for milking lines: pre-rinse (warm 35–40 °C), alkaline wash 70–75 °C, acid rinse, final cold rinse; chlorine 100–200 ppm in wash.

Teat dipping: pre-dip contact 30 seconds then wipe dry; post-dip immediately after cluster removal to reduce new mastitis infections.

Machine milking vacuum 40–45 kPa, pulsation rate 50–60 cycles/min, ratio 60:40 to 70:30 for cows; avoid overmilking beyond 1–2 minutes.

Milk somatic cell count below 200,000 cells/mL indicates healthy udder; above 400,000 cells/mL signals subclinical mastitis.

Buffalo milk has higher fat (6–8%) than cow milk (3.5–4.5%) because buffalo milk fat globules are larger and contain more saturated fat.

Average cow milk composition: water 87%, fat 3.5–4.5%, protein 3.2–3.5%, lactose 4.6–4.9%, ash 0.7%; buffalo milk: fat 6–8%, protein 3.8–4.2%.

Specific gravity of cow milk 1.028–1.032; values below 1.026 indicate added water, above 1.034 indicate skimming or added starch.

Gerber method: fat % = butyrometer reading; use 10 mL sulfuric acid (density 1.820–1.825) plus 11 mL milk plus 1 mL amyl alcohol.

Acidity: fresh milk 0.10–0.16% lactic acid; above 0.18% indicates developed acidity from bacterial growth.

Methylene blue reduction test: 30 minutes or more at 37 °C is good quality; decolourisation under 30 minutes indicates poor bacteriological quality.

Starch adulteration: add iodine solution; blue-black colour confirms starch. Detergent: shake with water; persistent froth indicates detergent.

Added water detection: freezing point of genuine milk is about −0.54 °C; less negative values indicate water addition.

Alkaline adulterants (lime, carbonate): add rosolic acid indicator; pink colour indicates alkali. Common salt test uses silver nitrate giving white precipitate.

Raw milk must be cooled to 4 °C within 2–3 hours of milking; each 1 °C rise above 4 °C accelerates bacterial growth.

LTLT (low-temperature long-time) pasteurisation: 63 °C for 30 minutes; HTST: 72 °C for 15 seconds; UHT: 135–150 °C for 1–4 seconds.

Phosphatase test confirms pasteurisation: negative result means alkaline phosphatase destroyed; positive means under-pasteurisation or raw milk contamination.

Homogenisation at 60–70 °C and 150–200 kg/cm² pressure reduces fat globule size to under 2 microns and prevents cream separation.

Pasteurised milk stored at 4–6 °C keeps 2–3 days; UHT milk in aseptic packs keeps 90–180 days at ambient temperature.

Cooling after pasteurisation must be rapid to below 5 °C to prevent survival and outgrowth of thermoduric organisms.

Milk chiller bulk tanks maintain 4 °C; agitation every 30 minutes prevents cream layer formation before collection.

Filtration or clarification removes visible sediment, but bactofugation (centrifugal) removes 90–99% of spores and somatic cells.

Butter: churn cream of 35–40% fat; yield formula: butter = cream × (cream fat − 0.5)/(80 − 0.5); standard butter contains 80% fat, 16% water, 2% salt.

Ghee: clarified butterfat at 99.7% fat; made by creamery butter method or direct cream method; moisture below 0.3% and FFA below 0.3% for good keeping quality.

Curd (dahi): pasteurised milk cooled to 37–40 °C, inoculated with 1–2% starter (Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus), incubated 4–6 hours.

Paneer: heat milk to 85–90 °C, add 1% citric acid or 2% lime juice solution, coagulate, drain whey, press; yield about 18–20% of milk weight.

Cheddar cheese: starter 1–2%, rennet at 30–32 °C, cheddaring, milling, salting 1.5–2%, pressing; ripening 3–12 months at 5–10 °C.

Milk powder: preheat to 90 °C, evaporate to 40–45% total solids, spray dry with inlet 180–200 °C and outlet 80–90 °C; moisture below 4%.

Roller-dried powder has scorched flavour and poor solubility; spray-dried powder has better solubility and reconstitution.

Khoa: heat milk to 85–90 °C, simmer and stir until 65–70% total solids; used for sweets. Chhana uses acid coagulation like paneer but with lower temperature.

Bacterial growth phases: lag, log (exponential), stationary, death; log phase has the fastest multiplication, so cold storage delays it.

Psychrotrophic bacteria (Pseudomonas) grow at 4–7 °C and cause proteolysis and rancidity in chilled raw milk.

Thermoduric organisms (Streptococcus thermophilus, Bacillus) survive pasteurisation; thermophilic spores survive UHT and cause spoilage.

Coliform count in pasteurised milk should be zero; presence indicates post-pasteurisation contamination from equipment or handlers.

Standard plate count limits: raw milk grade A below 100,000 cfu/mL; pasteurised milk below 30,000 cfu/mL.

Sanitation: clean first with detergent, then sanitise with chlorine 100–200 ppm or peracetic acid; contact time 2 minutes minimum.

Personal hygiene: hand wash with soap, sanitise, wear clean apron and cap; milk handlers with skin infection or diarrhoea must be excluded.

Water used in dairy must be potable: total plate count below 100 cfu/mL and no coliforms; test chlorine residual 0.2–0.5 ppm.

Plate heat exchanger: regeneration efficiency 85–90% recovers heat between pasteurised and raw streams, reducing steam and cooling demand.

CIP circuit requires flow velocity 1.5–2.0 m/s to achieve turbulent cleaning; insufficient velocity causes milk stone and biofilm.

Steam boiler: operating pressure typically 7–10 bar; safety valve set at or below design pressure; blowdown daily to control dissolved solids.

Refrigeration: ammonia or Freon compressor; condenser approach temperature should remain 5–8 °C; high approach signals scaling or poor airflow.

Pasteuriser flow diversion valve must return milk to balance tank if temperature falls below 72 °C; check daily with recorder chart.

Preventive maintenance schedule: lubricate bearings monthly, inspect gaskets quarterly, calibrate thermometers and flow meters every 6 months.

Milk pump and agitator seals must be food-grade; worn seals cause lubricant contamination and increase bacterial counts.

Effluent from dairy plant: BOD 200–3,000 mg/L; treatment by screening, equalisation, activated sludge, then discharge to land or drain.

Amul pattern (Anand pattern): three-tier structure - village dairy cooperative society, district milk union, state milk federation.

Village society collects milk twice daily, pays based on fat and SNF using a standard formula; members get patronage dividend from profits.

Pricing formula example: milk price = (fat % × fat rate) + (SNF % × SNF rate); rates revised periodically by the federation.

Working capital cycle of a dairy unit: milk procurement daily, payment to farmers within 10 days, product sales on 7–15 day credit.

Break-even point = fixed cost / (selling price per unit − variable cost per unit); for a small dairy plant, capacity utilisation above 60% is usually needed.

Marketing mix (4P): product (milk, curd, paneer, ghee), price (fat-based), place (cold chain outlets), promotion (quality certification, local branding).

FSSAI licence is mandatory for dairy processing units; basic registration for small units, state licence for medium, central licence for large.

Subsidy schemes: NABARD dairy entrepreneurship development scheme funds 25% of project cost as back-ended capital subsidy for small units.

Animal welfare: provide 0.5–1.0 m² lying space per cow in loose housing, clean water ad libitum, and shade to prevent heat stress above 30 °C.

Heat stress signs: respiration above 60 breaths/min, drooling, reduced feed intake; use fans, sprinklers and feed during cooler hours.

Zoonotic risks: brucellosis, tuberculosis, leptospirosis; use gloves, boil raw milk, and test herd annually.

Chemical hazards in dairy: antibiotic residues from treated cows (withhold milk 3–5 days after treatment), pesticide residues in fodder, aflatoxin M1 in milk.

Machine safety: lock out and tag out before servicing rotating shafts; never remove guards on pulleys, belts or augers.

Boiler and steam safety: trained operator only, pressure gauge and water level indicator checked each shift, safety valve tested weekly.

Waste management: dung to biogas or compost, whey to animal feed or biogas, plastic packaging segregated for recycling.

Noise and dust control: ear protection above 85 dB, masks during feed grinding and powder handling to prevent respiratory disease.

Gerber fat test procedure: mix milk sample at 20 °C, pipette 10 mL H2SO4 into butyrometer, add 11 mL milk and 1 mL amyl alcohol, cap, shake, centrifuge 5 minutes at 1,100 rpm, read at 65 °C.

Specific gravity by lactometer: read at 27 °C; correct reading = observed + 0.0002 × (27 − temperature) per degree deviation.

Acidity titration: 10 mL milk plus 1% phenolphthalein, titrate with N/10 NaOH; % lactic acid = (0.9 × mL NaOH used)/10.

COB (clot-on-boiling) test: heat 5 mL milk in a boiling tube; curdling indicates acidity above 0.18% and rejection of milk.

Alcohol test: equal volumes of milk and 68% ethanol; coagulation indicates unstable milk unsuitable for processing.

Record keeping: milk register (quantity, fat, SNF, price), breeding register (AI date, calving date), veterinary register (treatment, withdrawal period).

Project report structure: objectives, materials and methods, observations, results, discussion, conclusion, references; data in tables with units.

Lab safety: acid handling with goggles and apron, never add water to concentrated H2SO4, keep butyrometers in racks, dispose of acid waste separately.

Butter churning temperature 8–12 °C for cream of 35–40% fat; over-churning causes high moisture and poor body.

Ghee grading: special grade moisture below 0.3%, FFA below 0.3%; general grade moisture below 0.5%, FFA below 0.5%.

Dahi setting: inoculate 1–2% previous-day curd or starter at 37–40 °C, incubate 4–6 hours; set curd has firm body and clean acid flavour.

Paneer yield: about 18–20% of milk weight; use citric acid at 1% concentration added slowly with stirring at 85–90 °C.

Cheese ripening: cheddar at 5–10 °C for 3–12 months; proteolysis and lipolysis develop flavour and texture.

Spray drying: atomisation into hot air, inlet 180–200 °C, outlet 80–90 °C; drying time 5–30 seconds; moisture 2–4%.

Khoa making: continuous stirring and heating at 85–90 °C until 65–70% total solids; yield about 15–18% of milk weight.

Ice cream mix: fat 10–12%, MSNF 10–11%, sugar 14–16%, stabiliser 0.3–0.5%; overrun 30–50% from air incorporation.

Pasteurisation efficiency: HTST 72 °C/15 s achieves 5-log reduction of Coxiella burnetii and 99.99% kill of vegetative pathogens.

Spore formers (Bacillus cereus, Clostridium) survive pasteurisation and germinate at room temperature, causing spoilage of stored milk.

Yeast and mould counts above 10 cfu/mL in pasteurised products indicate post-process contamination, often from air or packaging.

Coliforms are indicator organisms for faecal contamination and poor sanitation; their presence in pasteurised milk is a legal reject.

Biofilm forms on stainless steel joints and gaskets; remove by dismantling and manual cleaning at least monthly in addition to CIP.

Antibiotic residues inhibit starter cultures and cause failed fermentation; test milk with rapid kits before cheese or curd making.

Sterility test for UHT milk: incubate at 30 °C and 55 °C for 7 days; no growth means commercially sterile.

Cleaning chemicals: alkaline removes organic matter, acid removes milk stone and minerals; never mix chlorine with acid (toxic gas).

Pasteuriser holding tube must provide the correct residence time; check flow rate against tube volume: time = volume/flow.

Milk chiller and bulk tank: compressor and agitator maintenance monthly; check refrigerant charge and condenser fins for dust.

CIP chemical concentrations: caustic soda 1–2% at 70–75 °C, nitric acid 0.5–1% at 60–70 °C, chlorine 100–200 ppm in final rinse.

Boiler water treatment: soften feed water, blow down to control TDS, and test hardness, alkalinity and pH daily.

Electrical safety in wet areas: earthing, residual current device, and waterproof fittings in milking parlours and wash areas.

Calibration: thermometer against ice point (0 °C) and boiling point (100 °C); lactometer against standard at 27 °C.

Effluent treatment: screen solids, equalise flow, aerate with activated sludge; monitor BOD and pH before discharge.

Milk pump selection: centrifugal pump for low-viscosity milk, positive displacement for cream and viscous products.

Cooperative principles: voluntary membership, one member one vote, equitable distribution of surplus, autonomy and education.

Village society functions: milk collection, testing, payment, input supply (feed, AI), veterinary first aid and member education.

Milk payment formula uses fat and SNF; a typical split is 60% weight for fat and 40% for SNF, with a base price per kg fat.

Project cost estimate: land, building, plant and machinery, utilities, pre-operative expenses, margin money and working capital.

Financial ratios: current ratio above 1.5, debt-equity below 2:1, and payback period under 5 years for a viable dairy unit.

Marketing channel: producer to society to union to federation to retailer; direct sale and e-commerce reduce margins but need cold chain.

FSSAI labelling: product name, ingredients, net quantity, date of manufacture, best before, batch number, nutritional information and licence number.

Government support: Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme, Rashtriya Gokul Mission, and state cooperative subsidies for chilling and processing.

Cow comfort: 1.0–1.5 m² covered area per cow, 4–5 m² loose yard, and a dry lying surface to prevent mastitis and lameness.

Water requirement: 60–100 litres per cow per day; buffaloes need 80–120 litres; inadequate water reduces milk yield sharply.

Animal welfare five freedoms: freedom from hunger, discomfort, pain, fear, and freedom to express normal behaviour.

Milk withdrawal period: 3–5 days for most antibiotics, 7 days for some; record treatment date and mark treated animals.

Brucellosis control: test and cull positive animals, vaccinate female calves with S19 or RB51, and pasteurise milk.

Biogas from dung: 25 kg dung yields about 1 m³ biogas; slurry is used as organic manure.

Wastewater recycling: treated water for flushing and irrigation; avoid discharging whey or wash water into water bodies.

Heat stress management: provide shade, fans, sprinklers, and adjust feeding to early morning and evening during summer.

Sampling: collect milk with a sterile dipper, mix thoroughly, label with date, time, source and preservative; send to lab within 24 hours.

Methylene blue reduction test: 10 mL milk plus 1 mL methylene blue, incubate at 37 °C, record decolourisation time; over 30 minutes is good.

Resazurin test: 10 mL milk plus 1 mL resazurin, read at 10 minutes and 60 minutes; colour change indicates bacterial activity.

Sediment test: filter 500 mL milk through a standard pad and compare with a sediment standard disc.

Butterfat by Gerber: read at 65 °C; correct for meniscus; duplicate readings should agree within 0.1%.

Project assessment criteria: relevance of topic, methodology, data accuracy, analysis, presentation, and viva performance.

Record book: daily milk yield, feed offered, breeding dates, disease and treatment, mortality; maintain for at least 3 years.

Lab safety: handle glass carefully, use fume hood for acid, keep first-aid box, and dispose of chemical waste as per local rules.

Herd composition: milch animals 60–70%, dry animals 10–15%, heifers and calves 20–25% for a stable herd.

Culling criteria: repeat breeder (3 or more services), low yield, chronic mastitis, and old age; cull 15–20% annually.

Heat detection aids: teaser bull, pedometer, tail paint, and observation twice daily for 20 minutes.

Calf housing: individual pens for first 2 weeks, then group housing; colostrum 10% of body weight within first hour.

Vaccination schedule: FMD every 6 months, HS and BQ annually before monsoon, brucellosis for female calves at 4–8 months.

Feed cost is 60–70% of total dairy farm cost; green fodder and silage reduce concentrate cost.

Silage making: chop maize at 30–35% dry matter, pack tightly, exclude air; pH falls below 4.2 for good preservation.

Record keeping: milk yield, breeding, health, feed and finance; use software or registers for decision making.

Milk yield peaks at 6–8 weeks after calving; nutrient demand at peak exceeds intake, causing negative energy balance.

Milking frequency: twice daily for cows, twice for buffaloes; three times daily increases yield 10–15% in high producers.

Udder preparation: wash teats with clean water, dry with individual towel, fore-strip, attach clusters within 1 minute.

Mastitis detection: California Mastitis Test (CMT) scores 0–3; score 2 or 3 indicates elevated somatic cells and infection.

Milking machine maintenance: replace liners every 2,500 milkings or 6 months; check pulsation and vacuum daily.

Milk cooling: plate cooler brings milk from 35 °C to 4 °C in seconds; slow cooling allows bacterial multiplication.

Hygiene of milker: short nails, clean hands, no jewellery, and no milking by persons with open wounds.

Buffalo milking: buffaloes let down milk slowly; allow 5–7 minutes and avoid overmilking to prevent teat injury.

Milk constituents vary with breed, stage of lactation, season and feed; colostrum has higher protein and minerals, lower lactose.

Fat content is lowest in the first and last milk; hence milk must be mixed before sampling for fat testing.

Protein test: Kjeldahl nitrogen × 6.38 gives total protein; milk protein is 80% casein and 20% whey proteins.

Lactose is the main carbohydrate; lactose intolerance results from low lactase enzyme in consumers.

Added water: freezing point depression test is the most reliable; genuine milk freezes near −0.54 °C.

Preservatives: formalin, hydrogen peroxide and boric acid are prohibited; test with specific colour reactions.

Urea adulteration: test with urease and Nessler reagent; synthetic milk contains urea, detergent and vegetable oil.

Quality grades: Grade A raw milk below 100,000 cfu/mL; Grade B below 1,000,000 cfu/mL; below Grade B is reject.

Pasteurisation does not sterilise; it destroys pathogens and reduces spoilage organisms, so cold storage is still required.

HTST pasteuriser components: balance tank, feed pump, regenerator, heater, holding tube, flow diversion valve, cooler.

Flow diversion valve returns milk to balance tank if temperature falls below 72 °C; recorder chart is legal evidence.

UHT processing requires aseptic filling in sterile packaging; any leak causes recontamination and spoilage.

Homogenisation prevents cream layer and improves mouthfeel; two-stage homogenisation at 150–200 kg/cm² and 50 kg/cm².

Storage temperature: pasteurised milk at 4–6 °C; frozen storage of ice cream mix at −20 °C or below.

Milk powder storage: cool, dry place, moisture below 4%, packaging in nitrogen-flushed cans for long shelf life.

Boiling milk destroys some vitamins and alters flavour; pasteurisation retains more nutrients.

Butter defects: rancid (lipolysis), fishy (oxidation), musty (mould), and greasy (poor churning); prevent by cold storage and hygiene.

Ghee defects: burnt flavour from overheating, rancid from FFA, and grainy texture from slow cooling; store in dark containers.

Curd defects: sour taste from over-incubation, whey separation from low solids, and gas from coliform contamination.

Paneer defects: rubbery texture from high acid and high temperature; hard body from over-pressing.

Cheese defects: early blowing from coliforms, late blowing from Clostridium, and bitterness from proteolysis.

Milk powder defects: caking from moisture, scorched flavour from high drying temperature, and poor solubility from overheating.

Standardisation: adjust fat in milk or cream by Pearson square method to achieve desired product composition.

Product yield: butter from cream, ghee from butter, paneer from milk, cheese from milk; yield depends on fat and casein recovery.

Bacteria in raw milk: lactic acid bacteria, coliforms, psychrotrophs, thermodurics and pathogens such as Salmonella and Listeria.

Pathogens of concern: Mycobacterium bovis, Brucella abortus, Salmonella, Listeria monocytogenes, and E. coli O157:H7.

Pasteurisation kills vegetative pathogens but not spores; UHT and canning achieve commercial sterility.

Starter cultures: Lactococcus lactis for cheese, Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus for yoghurt and curd.

Bacteriophage attack causes slow or failed fermentation; rotate starter strains and use phage-resistant media.

Sanitation verification: swab tests on equipment surfaces, ATP bioluminescence, and coliform counts on rinse water.

Personal hygiene: hand wash, sanitise, clean uniform, cover hair, and exclude sick workers from milk handling.

Water quality: potable water with no coliforms; chlorination 0.2–0.5 ppm residual; test monthly.

Plate heat exchanger plates: inspect gaskets for cracks; a leaking gasket causes cross-contamination between raw and pasteurised milk.

CIP system: verify flow, temperature, concentration and contact time; record each wash cycle.

Boiler: daily blowdown, weekly safety valve test, monthly water hardness test, annual inspection.

Refrigeration: check compressor oil level, condenser cleanliness, and refrigerant leaks; maintain log book.

Pumps: cavitation causes noise and damage; ensure suction line is short and free from air leaks.

Electrical: motors protected by overload relays; wet areas need residual current devices and earthing.

Preventive maintenance schedule: daily checks, weekly lubrication, monthly calibration, annual overhaul.

Effluent: BOD and COD monitoring; treated water reuse for irrigation and flushing.

Business plan components: market analysis, technical feasibility, financial analysis, risk assessment and implementation schedule.

Sources of finance: own capital, bank loan, NABARD refinance, state subsidy and cooperative share capital.

Milk pricing: fat and SNF based; payment cycle weekly or fortnightly; deductions for feed and AI services.

Cooperative audit: annual audit by registrar, member general body meeting, and election of board.

Marketing: branding, quality certification, cold chain, and direct-to-consumer delivery.

FSSAI: registration for turnover below 12 lakh, state licence for 12 lakh to 20 crore, central licence above 20 crore.

Risk management: insurance for animals, plant and machinery; forward contracts for feed.

Digital tools: milk collection software, SMS payment alerts, and online accounting for societies.

Animal handling: use calm approach, avoid shouting, use cattle crush for restraint, and never hit animals.

Zoonosis prevention: gloves, boots, hand wash, and pasteurisation of milk; vaccinate handlers against tetanus and rabies if needed.

Chemical safety: store acids and alkalis separately, label containers, use PPE, and keep safety data sheets.

Fire safety: extinguishers in boiler room and electrical panels; no smoking near hay and feed stores.

Ergonomics: milking parlour design to reduce bending; lift feed bags with bent knees.

Environmental: manure to compost or biogas, wastewater treatment, and plastic recycling.

Animal welfare: avoid overstocking, provide shade and water, and treat sick animals promptly.

Emergency: first-aid box, emergency contact numbers, and training in fire and chemical spill response.

Milk sampling for chemical tests: use clean dry container, mix sample by gentle inversion, avoid froth.

Gerber test: use sulfuric acid carefully; add milk slowly along the wall; shake in a shaker, centrifuge, and read.

Acidity test: titrate to faint pink endpoint; record volume of NaOH and calculate lactic acid percentage.

COB test: boil milk in a test tube; observe curdling; record result as positive or negative.

Alcohol test: mix equal volumes of milk and 68% alcohol; observe coagulation; record.

Project report: include title, introduction, objectives, methodology, results, discussion, conclusion, references.

Data presentation: tables, graphs, and statistical measures (mean, standard deviation).

Viva preparation: understand methods, results, and limitations; be ready to explain calculations.

Breeding: crossbred cows (HF × local) give higher milk yield; buffaloes have higher fat.

AI technique: recto-vaginal method; deposit semen in body of uterus; use thawed semen at 35–37 °C.

Pregnancy diagnosis: rectal palpation at 45–60 days; ultrasound earlier.

Calving management: clean bedding, watch for dystocia, call veterinarian if delay over 2 hours.

Calf rearing: colostrum, then whole milk or milk replacer, calf starter from 1 week, weaning at 8–12 weeks.

Heifer rearing: target weight 250–280 kg at first AI; age 13–15 months.

Feed: balanced ration with green fodder, dry fodder, concentrate, mineral mixture and salt.

Health: regular deworming, vaccination, hoof trimming, and mastitis control.

Lactation length: 305 days standard; dry period 60 days; calving interval 12–13 months.

Milk let-down: oxytocin release; stress inhibits let-down; calm handling improves milk yield.

Milking routine: wash, dry, fore-strip, attach, machine milk, detach, post-dip.

Mastitis control: teat dipping, dry cow therapy, clean bedding, and milking machine maintenance.

Somatic cell count: below 200,000 healthy; above 400,000 subclinical mastitis.

Milk cooling: rapid cooling to 4 °C within 2 hours; slow cooling increases bacterial count.

Milking machine: vacuum 40–45 kPa, pulsation 50–60 cycles/min, liner replacement every 2,500 milkings.

Hygiene: clean hands, clean udder, clean equipment; water quality potable.

Milk composition: water, fat, protein, lactose, minerals; varies with species, breed and stage of lactation.

Cow milk fat 3.5–4.5%; buffalo milk fat 6–8%; goat milk fat 3.5–4.5%.

Specific gravity: cow milk 1.028–1.032; buffalo milk 1.030–1.034.

Acidity: fresh milk 0.10–0.16% lactic acid; above 0.18% indicates spoilage.

Gerber test: fat percentage by butyrometer; acid digestion and centrifugation.

Adulterants: water, starch, detergent, urea, formalin, hydrogen peroxide; test with specific reagents.

Methylene blue reduction test: quality grading; decolourisation time over 30 minutes is good.

Phosphatase test: confirms pasteurisation; negative result indicates proper pasteurisation.

Chilling: raw milk cooled to 4 °C within 2–3 hours; bulk tank storage.

Pasteurisation: LTLT 63 °C/30 min; HTST 72 °C/15 s; UHT 135–150 °C/1–4 s.

Phosphatase test: negative after pasteurisation; positive indicates under-pasteurisation.

Homogenisation: 150–200 kg/cm² at 60–70 °C; reduces fat globule size.

Storage: pasteurised milk 4–6 °C for 2–3 days; UHT milk ambient for 90–180 days.

Cooling after pasteurisation: rapid to below 5 °C; prevents thermoduric growth.

Filtration: removes sediment; bactofugation removes spores.

Packaging: glass, plastic pouch, aseptic carton; aseptic for UHT.

Butter: cream 35–40% fat, churn at 8–12 °C; butter 80% fat, 16% water, 2% salt.

Ghee: butterfat 99.7%; moisture below 0.3%; FFA below 0.3% for special grade.

Curd: milk at 37–40 °C, starter 1–2%, incubate 4–6 hours.

Paneer: milk at 85–90 °C, citric acid 1%, coagulate, drain, press; yield 18–20%.

Cheese: starter, rennet, cheddaring, milling, salting, pressing, ripening 3–12 months.

Milk powder: evaporation to 40–45% solids, spray drying inlet 180–200 °C, outlet 80–90 °C.

Khoa: heat milk to 85–90 °C, stir until 65–70% solids.

Ice cream: fat 10–12%, MSNF 10–11%, sugar 14–16%, overrun 30–50%.

Bacterial growth: lag, log, stationary, death phases; cold storage delays log phase.

Psychrotrophs: Pseudomonas grows at 4–7 °C; causes spoilage of chilled milk.

Thermodurics: survive pasteurisation; Bacillus and Streptococcus.

Coliforms: indicator of faecal contamination; zero in pasteurised milk.

Standard plate count: raw milk grade A below 100,000 cfu/mL; pasteurised below 30,000 cfu/mL.

Sanitation: detergent then sanitiser; chlorine 100–200 ppm, contact 2 minutes.

Personal hygiene: hand wash, clean apron, cap, no jewellery; exclude sick workers.

Water quality: potable, no coliforms, chlorine residual 0.2–0.5 ppm.