Kerala Plus Two Music key terms

The smallest perceivable interval of pitch in Indian music, treated as the microtonal unit from which the twenty-two-step theoretical scale is built. It is the acoustic foundation for tuning svaras and defining raga intervals.

A musical note or pitch position in the Indian scale, named Shadja, Rishabha, Gandhara, Madhyama, Panchama, Dhaivata and Nishada. Svaras carry characteristic intonation and are classified as achala or vikrita in the raga system.

The set of defining attributes of a raga: its scale, vadi and samvadi, graha and nyasa notes, characteristic phrases, ascent and descent, and time of performance. These criteria distinguish one raga from another.

The ascending and descending order of svaras that outlines a raga's melodic territory. Avarohana often includes svaras omitted in arohana, and the difference between the two paths is central to raga identity.

The principal or life-giving svara of a raga, the note most frequently emphasized and around which phrases revolve. Its companion samvadi supports it, while vivadi svaras are treated as dissonant in that raga context.

The second most important svara in a raga, usually a fourth or fifth from the vadi. It reinforces the raga's tonal centre and helps shape cadential phrases.

A resting or concluding note on which a phrase or section of improvisation comes to rest, giving a sense of completion. Nyasa svaras are chosen according to the raga's grammar.

A zigzag or out-of-order movement of svaras in a raga, as opposed to straight ascending or descending lines. It is a defining feature of ragas such as Kalyani in certain phrases or Begada.

The metrical cycle of Indian music, built from angas such as laghu, druta and anudruta in Carnatic practice, or vibhaga and matra in Hindustani practice. It governs the rhythmic framework of a composition and improvisation.

The tempo or speed of a musical performance, ranging from slow vilambita through medium madhya to fast druta. Laya is both a technical parameter of tala and an expressive device in improvisation.

The prescribed duration or rhythmic density of a tala cycle, distinguishing first speed, second speed and higher speeds in Carnatic music. Doubling speed halves the duration of each beat while preserving the cycle.

The class of a tala determined by the number of beats in its laghu, such as tisra, chatusra, khanda, misra or sankirna. Jati variations produce the seventy-two melakarta-linked tala schemes in Carnatic theory.

The ancient Sanskrit treatise on dramaturgy, dance and music attributed to Bharata, dated roughly to the early centuries CE. It describes svaras, srutis, jatis, prabandhas and the aesthetic theory of rasa.

A thirteenth-century Sanskrit music treatise by Sharngadeva, organized into seven chapters covering svaras, ragas, prabandhas, tala, instruments and dance. It is a key bridge between ancient and medieval Indian music theory.

A medieval structured musical composition described in treatises such as the Sangeeta Ratnakara, with fixed sections and poetic text. It is an ancestor of later forms such as the dhrupad and the Carnatic varnam.

A seventeenth-century Sanskrit treatise by Ahobala that gives detailed descriptions of ragas and their svara patterns. It is often cited in discussions of the transition from medieval to modern raga classification.

A genre of miniature painting and a related poetic-musical tradition that personifies ragas as human figures or scenes. It reflects the medieval practice of associating each raga with a season, mood and iconography.

A Carnatic composer of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, one of the trinity, celebrated for hundreds of kritis in Telugu, including the Pancharatna kritis. His works are central to the concert repertoire.

A Carnatic composer of the trinity known for Sanskrit kritis with elaborate raga and tala treatment, including the Navavarana kritis and the Kamalamba group. His compositions often encode technical and devotional detail.

The third member of the Carnatic trinity, known for compositions in ragas such as Todi and Bhairavi, often in misra chapu tala, with distinctive rhythmic and devotional intensity. His swarajati and kriti output is small but influential.

The principal Carnatic concert form, usually with pallavi, anupallavi and one or more charanas, setting devotional or descriptive text to a raga and tala. It is the main vehicle for composed repertoire.

A Carnatic exercise-composition that presents a raga's characteristic phrases in a fixed sequence, usually with pallavi, anupallavi, mukthayi and charana sections. Tana varnams emphasize raga grammar, while pada varnams suit dance.

The opening section of a Carnatic composition, which presents the main melodic line and text. In raga alapana and tala exposition, the term also denotes the improvised line used in ragam-tanam-pallavi.

The second section of a Carnatic kriti, following the pallavi and usually higher in tessitura. It prepares for the charana and often carries contrasting melodic material.

The most elaborate Carnatic manodharma form, combining raga alapana, rhythmic tanam and a composed- improvised pallavi line with niraval and swara kalpana. It is a test of a performer's improvisational command.

Free, unmetered improvisation that unfolds a raga's phrases and mood before a composition, moving from lower to higher registers. It is the main vehicle for raga exposition in Carnatic music.

Improvised melodic variation on a single line of a composition, keeping the text and tala intact while exploring the raga. It typically follows the anupallavi or charana in concert performance.

Improvised solfège passages in a raga and tala, often built in patterns and culminating in a rhythmic cadence. It demonstrates both melodic imagination and command of tala arithmetic.

A precomposed rhythmic phrase, often in swara or drum syllables, repeated at different speeds and resolved on a cadential point. It is a hallmark of Carnatic rhythmic craftsmanship.

The oldest surviving Hindustani vocal form, set in a slow, grave tempo with a four-part structure of sthayi, antara, sanchari and abhoga. It is associated with the Dagar and other lineages and often uses pakhawaj accompaniment.

The dominant Hindustani vocal form, with a short sthayi and antara set to a tala and expanded through alap, taan and bol-banao improvisation. It exists in vilambit and drut varieties and belongs to specific gharanas.

A lineage or school of Hindustani music defined by shared repertoire, style and pedagogical transmission from a founding master. Examples include Gwalior, Kirana, Agra, Jaipur-Atrauli and Patiala.

A semi-classical Hindustani vocal form with romantic or devotional text, allowing flexible treatment of raga and tala. It is associated with the Banaras and Lucknow traditions and emphasizes expressive bol-banao.

The vocal music of Kerala's Kathakali dance-drama, sung in a distinctive style with chengila and chenda accompaniment. Its ragas and talas are drawn from a regional tradition related to but distinct from Carnatic practice.

The traditional temple singing of Kerala, performed in a simple melodic style with cymbals and often associated with omanathinkal songs. It forms a distinct regional devotional repertoire.

A Kerala folk narrative art in which a lead singer performs with a large bow instrument and supporting singers, recounting epic stories. It combines music, rhythm and storytelling in village ritual contexts.

A Kerala percussion ensemble form led by the chenda, in which a soloist elaborates rhythmic patterns with supporting drums. It is a major display of Kerala's tala artistry.

A cylindrical Kerala drum played with sticks, used in Kathakali, Theyyam and temple ensembles. Its crisp, loud tone makes it central to Kerala's percussion traditions.

A notation system that writes svaras as abbreviated syllables such as S R G M, with markers for octave and duration. It is widely used for teaching and transcribing Indian music.

The Western five-line notation system adapted in Indian music education to record pitch and rhythm precisely. It is used alongside sargam notation in comparative and institutional study.

A long-necked Indian stringed instrument with frets and gourd resonators, prominent in Carnatic music. The Saraswati vina is a principal solo instrument in the South Indian tradition.

The principal Carnatic barrel drum, played with both hands and tuned to the tonic. It provides rhythmic accompaniment and is central to tala practice and percussion solos.

A long-necked drone instrument with four strings, plucked continuously to provide the tonic reference in Indian music. It supports intonation for both vocalists and instrumentalists.

The aesthetic relish or emotional flavour evoked in a prepared audience by a performance, classically enumerated as nine rasas including shringara, karuna and raudra. It is the central concept of Indian aesthetic theory.

The emotional state or mood that a performer expresses and that, when relished by a sensitive audience, develops into rasa. It is the felt content that music, text and gesture convey.