KSEAB SSLC Political Science cheat sheet

The Constituent Assembly first met on 9 December 1946; the Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950.

The Drafting Committee was chaired by B. R. Ambedkar; the Objectives Resolution was moved by Jawaharlal Nehru in December 1946.

The Preamble declares India a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic and lists justice, liberty, equality and fraternity as objectives; the words 'socialist' and 'secular' were added by the 42nd Amendment (1976).

Key features: written and lengthiest constitution, parliamentary system, federalism with a strong Centre, single citizenship, independent judiciary with judicial review, universal adult franchise, and a blend of rigidity and flexibility.

Article 368 governs amendment: most provisions need a special majority (two-thirds of members present and voting plus a majority of total membership) in each House; federal provisions also need ratification by at least half the State legislatures.

The Kesavananda Bharati case (1973) established the basic structure doctrine: Parliament cannot amend the Constitution so as to destroy its essential features.

Sources: parliamentary government from the UK, Fundamental Rights and judicial review from the USA, Directive Principles from Ireland, emergency provisions from the Weimar Constitution, and the concurrent list idea from Australia.

The Constitution originally had 395 Articles in 22 Parts and 8 Schedules; it now has 12 Schedules, and Schedules 5, 6 and 7 deal with scheduled areas, tribal areas of the North-East, and the three legislative lists respectively.

Fundamental Rights are in Part III, Articles 12 to 35; they are justiciable, and a law inconsistent with them is void under Article 13.

Article 14 guarantees equality before the law and equal protection of the laws; Article 15 prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth; Article 16 covers equality of opportunity in public employment.

Article 19 protects six freedoms: speech and expression, assembly, association, movement, residence, and profession or occupation; reasonable restrictions may be imposed on stated grounds such as sovereignty, public order, decency and morality.

Article 21 protects life and personal liberty; after Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978), any procedure depriving a person of liberty must be fair, just and reasonable.

Articles 23 and 24 prohibit human trafficking, forced labour and child labour below 14 years in factories, mines and hazardous work; Articles 25 to 28 protect freedom of religion.

Articles 29 and 30 protect cultural and educational rights of minorities, including the right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions.

Article 32 gives the right to move the Supreme Court for enforcement of Fundamental Rights; Dr. Ambedkar called it the 'heart and soul' of the Constitution, and High Courts have similar power under Article 226.

Writs available: habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, certiorari and quo warranto. Rights under Articles 20 and 21 cannot be suspended even during a national emergency (44th Amendment).

Fundamental Duties are in Part IVA, Article 51A; they were added by the 42nd Amendment (1976) on the recommendation of the Swaran Singh Committee, originally ten in number, with an eleventh added by the 86th Amendment (2002).

Article 51A duties include respecting the Constitution, the national flag and anthem, cherishing the noble ideals of the freedom struggle, defending the country, promoting harmony, protecting the environment, developing scientific temper, safeguarding public property, striving for excellence, and sending children to school (clause k).

Fundamental Duties are non-justiciable and are not enforceable by courts; Parliament may provide for their enforcement by law.

Directive Principles are in Part IV, Articles 36 to 51; they are non-justiciable but fundamental in the governance of the country, and the State must apply them in making laws.

Socialistic principles include adequate means of livelihood, equitable distribution of material resources (Article 39), equal pay for equal work, and protection of children and workers.

Gandhian principles include organising village panchayats (Article 40), promoting cottage industries (Article 43), and prohibiting intoxicating drinks and drugs (Article 47).

Article 44 directs the State to secure a uniform civil code; Article 45 as amended by the 86th Amendment directs early childhood care and education for children below six years.

Article 37 states Directive Principles are not enforceable in any court, yet in Minerva Mills (1980) the Supreme Court held that the balance between Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles is part of the basic structure.

Parliament consists of the President, the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) and the House of the People (Lok Sabha); the Rajya Sabha has a maximum of 250 members and the Lok Sabha a maximum of 552.

Lok Sabha members are directly elected for five years; Rajya Sabha members are elected by elected members of State Legislative Assemblies by proportional representation with a single transferable vote, for six years, with one-third retiring every two years.

Money Bills are introduced only in the Lok Sabha, on the President's recommendation; the Rajya Sabha may keep a Money Bill for a maximum of 14 days and cannot amend or reject it (Article 110).

The President is elected indirectly by an electoral college using the single transferable vote system; the President may be removed by impeachment for violation of the Constitution under Article 61.

The Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha (Article 75); the Prime Minister heads it, and the President acts on ministerial advice under Article 74.

The Supreme Court consists of the Chief Justice and other judges, appointed by the President; judges hold office until 65 years of age, and removal requires a special majority on grounds of proved misbehaviour or incapacity under Article 124.

Judicial review allows courts to declare laws and executive actions unconstitutional; the Supreme Court's jurisdiction includes original (Article 32, disputes between governments under Article 131), appellate, advisory (Article 143) and writ jurisdiction.

The High Court is the highest court in a State; under Article 141, Supreme Court decisions bind all courts in India, and Article 137 gives the Supreme Court power to review its own judgments.

The Seventh Schedule divides powers into the Union List, State List and Concurrent List; residuary powers rest with the Union (Article 248), and in conflicts of concurrent legislation Union law prevails under Article 254 unless the State law has received presidential assent.

Union executive powers include appointing Governors, deploying armed forces, and issuing directions to States; Article 356 allows President's Rule when constitutional machinery in a State fails.

The Finance Commission (Article 280) recommends distribution of net tax proceeds between the Union and States; the Goods and Services Council is a constitutional body under Article 279A (101st Amendment).

Inter-State Council is provided by Article 263, and the National Development Council is an extra-constitutional advisory body on planning.

The 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act (1992) gave constitutional status to Panchayati Raj under Part IX and the Eleventh Schedule (29 subjects); the 74th Amendment covers urban local bodies under Part IXA and the Twelfth Schedule (18 subjects).

Three-tier panchayat structure: Gram Panchayat at village level, Panchayat Samiti at intermediate level, and Zilla Panchayat at district level; States with population below 20 lakh need not constitute the intermediate tier.

Panchayat elections are conducted by the State Election Commission, and the State Finance Commission reviews panchayat finances every five years; one-third seats are reserved for women, with reservations for SCs and STs in proportion to population.

The 74th Amendment provides for three types of urban bodies: Nagar Panchayat for transitional areas, Municipal Council for smaller urban areas, and Municipal Corporation for larger urban areas.

The Election Commission of India is a constitutional body under Article 324; it conducts elections to Parliament, State legislatures, and the offices of President and Vice-President.

Qualifications: a Lok Sabha candidate must be an Indian citizen aged at least 25 and a registered elector; a Rajya Sabha candidate must be at least 30; the voting age is 18 (61st Amendment, 1988).

The First-Past-The-Post system is used for Lok Sabha and Assembly elections: the candidate with the highest number of valid votes wins, even without a majority.

The Model Code of Conduct applies from the announcement of elections until results are declared; candidate expenditure limits are prescribed by the Election Commission and reviewed periodically.

Recognition as a State party or national party depends on vote-share and seat criteria under the Election Symbols (Reservation and Allotment) Order, 1968; recognised parties get a reserved symbol.

Anti-defection law under the Tenth Schedule disqualifies a legislator who voluntarily gives up party membership or votes against a party whip; the Speaker or Chairperson decides such cases.

Electoral behaviour determinants include caste, religion, region, language, class, gender, age, party identification, development performance and welfare schemes; turnout in recent general elections has ranged around 65 to 68 per cent.

Electoral reforms debated include state funding of elections, transparency in political funding through electoral bonds or their alternatives, and increasing the number of women in legislatures through reservation proposals.

Social movements are sustained collective actions by groups seeking social or political change; they may be reformist, revolutionary, or reactionary in orientation.

Old social movements in India include the national freedom movement, peasant and trade union movements, and the Dalit movement led by Jyotirao Phule and B. R. Ambedkar.

New social movements focus on identity, environment, gender and human rights; examples include the Chipko movement, Narmada Bachao Andolan, and the anti-liquor movements in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.

Pressure groups are organised groups that seek to influence public policy without contesting elections; examples include trade unions such as INTUC and CITU, the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry, and farmers' organisations.

Pressure groups use lobbying, strikes, demonstrations, petitions, and media campaigns; their influence depends on size, resources, leadership and access to decision-makers.

Public opinion is the aggregate of views held by citizens on public issues; it is shaped by family, school, media, political parties, religious and community organisations, and opinion leaders.

The right to freedom of speech and expression (Article 19(1)(a)) and the right to form associations (Article 19(1)(c)) provide the constitutional basis for pressure groups and movements.

Social movements often influence legislation and policy, as seen in the Right to Information Act (2005), the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (2005), and the National Food Security Act (2013).

The objectives of India's foreign policy include national security, territorial integrity, economic development, and promotion of peace and international cooperation.

Article 51 of the Directive Principles directs the State to promote international peace and security, maintain just and honourable relations between nations, and encourage settlement of international disputes by arbitration.

Non-Alignment was the core of India's Cold War policy, associated with Jawaharlal Nehru and the Bandung Conference of 1955; the Non-Aligned Movement was founded in Belgrade in 1961.

Panchsheel, the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, was signed with China in 1954 and covers mutual respect for sovereignty, non-aggression, non-interference, equality, and peaceful coexistence.

India is a founding member of the United Nations (1945) and has been a non-permanent member of the Security Council several times; India seeks permanent membership of an expanded Security Council.

The UN Security Council has five permanent members with veto power (China, France, Russia, the UK and the USA) and ten non-permanent members elected for two-year terms.

India is a member of the World Trade Organization, the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and the Quad.

India has contributed troops to UN peacekeeping missions since the 1950s and is among the largest troop contributors; it signed the Paris Agreement on climate change in 2016.

Major challenges to Indian democracy include casteism, communalism, regionalism, corruption, criminalisation of politics, money power, and dynastic politics.

Caste-based discrimination persists despite Articles 15, 16 and 17; affirmative action includes reservation in education and public employment for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes.

Communalism refers to the politicisation of religion; Article 25 guarantees freedom of religion, while the Representation of the People Act, 1951, provides for disqualification of candidates on conviction for certain offences.

Criminalisation of politics is addressed by the Supreme Court's rulings requiring candidates to disclose criminal cases and by the disqualification provision in Section 8 of the Representation of the People Act.

Corruption is addressed by the Prevention of Corruption Act (1988), the Central Vigilance Commission, the Central Bureau of Investigation, and the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act (2013).

Judicial activism, public interest litigation (Article 32 and 226), and e-governance are responses to governance deficits; the Right to Information Act (2005) strengthens transparency.

Regionalism can be both integrative and divisive; demands for statehood and disputes over water and boundary sharing are examples of regional tensions.

Other challenges include misinformation and hate speech in digital media, declining legislative deliberation, low representation of women, and environmental degradation affecting rights to life and livelihood.

Karnataka was formed on 1 November 1956 under the States Reorganisation Act, originally named Mysore State, and was renamed Karnataka on 1 November 1973.

The Karnataka Legislative Assembly has 224 elected members; the Legislative Council has 75 members, of whom 25 are elected by MLAs, 25 by local bodies, 7 by graduates, 7 by teachers, and 11 are nominated by the Governor.

The Governor is the constitutional head of the State and appoints the Chief Minister; the Council of Ministers is collectively responsible to the Legislative Assembly.

The High Court of Karnataka is at Bengaluru, with benches at Dharwad and Kalaburagi; the Chief Justice is appointed by the President in consultation with the Chief Justice of India and the Governor.

Karnataka has 31 districts and is divided into four revenue divisions: Bengaluru, Mysuru, Belagavi and Kalaburagi; the State Election Commission conducts panchayat and municipal elections.

Karnataka's Panchayati Raj structure includes Gram Panchayats, Taluk Panchayats and Zilla Panchayats, with elections held every five years; the State Finance Commission recommends devolution of funds to these bodies.

The Karnataka Lokayukta is an anti-corruption ombudsman established under the Karnataka Lokayukta Act, 1984; it investigates allegations against public functionaries.

Notable State institutions include the Karnataka State Human Rights Commission, the Karnataka Public Service Commission, and the Karnataka State Information Commission under the Right to Information Act.