Maharashtra HSC Animal Science & Dairying (Bifocal) cheat sheet

Animal husbandry is the science and art of breeding, feeding, housing, health care and economic utilisation of farm animals; dairying is its milk-oriented branch.

Livestock census in India is conducted every 5 years; it records species-wise, breed-wise and age/sex-wise animal numbers used for policy and extension planning.

Mixed farming integrates crop production with livestock; crop residues (straw, stover) feed animals and dung/manure returns nutrients to soil, closing the nutrient loop.

Extensive (pastoral/range) systems use natural grazing with low inputs and low output per hectare; intensive (stall-fed) systems use cultivated fodder, concentrates and housing for high output per animal.

Zero-grazing (cut-and-carry) keeps animals stalled and fodder is harvested and carried to them; suited to land-scarce peri-urban dairying and reduces grazing land degradation.

Rural/backyard dairy farming keeps 1-3 local or crossbred animals per household using family labour and crop by-products; it supplies most of India's milk.

Commercial dairy farms keep larger herds, rely on hired labour, purchased feed and market-oriented milk sale; profitability depends on feed cost per litre and herd productivity.

Terms: cattle = Bos indicus (zebu) and Bos taurus (exotic); buffalo = Bubalus bubalis; sheep = Ovis aries; goat = Capra hircus; pig = Sus scrofa domesticus.

Dairy as an enterprise converts low-value roughage into high-value protein and generates daily cash flow, draught power (bullocks) and manure, so it stabilises farm income.

Points of the animal: poll (top of head), forehead, muzzle, jaw, neck, withers, back, loin, rump, tail head, pin bone, hip bone, flank, brisket, barrel, udder, teats, hock, stifle, pastern, hoof.

Age in cattle/buffalo from horns: a calf shows small horn buds; with age horn rings (annulations) appear at the base and the horn grows outward and upward; rings are only a rough guide.

Age from teeth: temporary (milk) incisors erupt in the first weeks; permanent central incisors appear around 2-2.5 years, then successive pairs replace milk teeth roughly yearly.

Dental formula of adult cattle: 0 incisors and 0 canines in the upper jaw (dental pad instead); 6 lower incisors and 2 canines; 6 premolars and 6 molars on each side - 32 teeth total.

Wearing of permanent incisors gives a broad age estimate: level/slightly worn at 5-6 years, broad and worn at 8-9 years, and teeth may become spaced or fall out in old age.

Body condition scoring in cattle/buffalo uses a 1-5 scale (1 emaciated, 5 obese) palpating the loin, ribs, hip and tail head; score 3-3.5 is desirable for a milch animal.

Udder shape and teat placement indicate milking ease: well-attached, level, wide udder with medium-sized, evenly spaced, squarely placed teats is preferred; pendulous udders and bottle teats are culled.

Skin, hair coat and mucous membrane colour are health indicators: pale membranes suggest anaemia, yellow suggests jaundice/liver or blood parasite problems, and a dull coat suggests poor nutrition or parasites.

Dairy type conformation: wedge shape, long deep barrel, prominent withers, thin neck, fine bone, capacious udder and clear milk veins indicate milking capacity; beef type shows blocky, thick muscling.

Milch (dairy) cattle breeds of India: Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Gir, Tharparkar, Rathi, Kankrej (dual purpose), Ongole, Hariana, Deoni; they are Bos indicus with heat tolerance and tick resistance.

Exotic dairy breeds: Holstein-Friesian (black and white, highest milk yield, low fat), Jersey (fawn/brown, small, high fat, early maturity), Brown Swiss (brown, dual purpose, strong legs), Ayrshire and Guernsey.

Buffalo breeds: Murrah (black, curly horns, highest milk yield), Jaffarabadi (heavy, long drooping horns), Surti (two white collar bands, sickle horns), Mehsana, Nagpuri, Bhadawari (highest fat), Nili-Ravi.

Draught cattle: Khillari, Nagori, Hallikar, Amritmahal, Kangayam; draught breeds show compact body, strong legs and powerful shoulders - not used as dairy animals.

Goat breeds: Sirohi, Barbari, Beetal, Jamnapari, Osmanabadi (meat), and Surti, Sangamneri; Boer is an exotic meat breed; Saanen, Toggenburg, Alpine and Nubian are dairy breeds.

Sheep breeds: Deccani, Nellore, Marwari, Chokla, Nali, Sonadi, and Merino/Rambouillet (fine wool exotics); Patanwadi, Magra and Marwari are wool breeds of the region.

Identification methods: ear tagging (plastic/metal), ear notching, tattooing (inner ear/ear web), branding (hot or freeze), neck chains, microchip/RFID and nose printing; ear tag is the most common, cheap and permanent method.

Crossbred cattle in India are named by exotic breed and generation, e.g. Holstein-Friesian cross (HF x local) and Jersey cross; grading-up raises exotic inheritance generation by generation.

Breed selection for a dairy unit: choose high-yielding, disease-resistant breeds suited to local climate; crossbreds yield more but need better feed and management than indigenous breeds.

Feed classification: roughages (green fodder, hay, straw, silage - high fibre, low energy) and concentrates (cereals, oil cakes, bran - low fibre, high energy/protein); supplements include minerals and vitamins.

Green fodder crops: hybrid napier, maize, sorghum (jowar), bajra, lucerne (alfalfa, high protein), berseem, cowpea, oats; legume fodders are richer in protein than cereal fodders.

Silage: green fodder (maize/sorghum) chaffed to 2-3 cm, compacted in a pit, moisture 60-70%, sealed with polythene and soil for 45-60 days; anaerobic fermentation produces lactic acid and preserves it.

Hay: green fodder dried to about 12-15% moisture with leaves retained; excessive sun drying shatters leaves and loses protein and carotene.

Berseem and lucerne are leguminous fodders rich in protein; berseem is grown in winter (rabi) and lucerne is a perennial with deep roots.

Total dry matter intake of cattle/buffalo is roughly 2-3% of body weight per day; roughage should supply about 60-70% and concentrate 30-40% of the ration on dry matter basis.

Balanced ration: one that supplies all nutrients (energy, protein, minerals, vitamins) in required proportion and quantity; feeding it improves milk yield, fertility and health.

Feed formula: concentrate mixture of maize 33%, wheat bran 20%, groundnut cake 25%, rice bran 10%, molasses 8% and mineral mixture 2% plus salt 1% is a common home mix; adjust to local prices.

Common anti-nutritional/toxic risks: high nitrate in young sorghum/bajra (prussic acid), excessive urea feeding (ammonia toxicity), and mouldy feed (aflatoxin) - never feed urea to young calves or in large amounts.

Site selection for a dairy shed: elevated, well-drained, dry land, near a water source and road, away from residential areas and prevailing wind, with space for future expansion.

Floor space per animal: loose housing about 3.5-4.5 square metres per adult cow and 5-6 square metres per buffalo in covered area; calf pens need about 2 square metres per calf.

Manger and water trough: manger length about 0.75-1 m per adult animal, height about 0.4-0.5 m; water trough must be clean and accessible at all times.

Floor slope of about 1 in 40-50 towards the drain, with a non-slippery surface; a gutter of 40-50 cm width collects urine and washings.

Sanitation: daily removal of dung, dry bedding, periodic white-washing with lime, disinfection of calf pens, foot bath at entry, and control of flies and rodents.

Ventilation: ridge/openings at the roof allow hot air to escape; avoid drafts on calves; air movement reduces humidity and respiratory disease.

Water requirement: cattle drink about 3-5 litres per litre of milk produced plus maintenance; a high-yielding cow may drink 60-100 litres a day in summer.

Farm records: breeding register (heat, AI, calving dates), milk record (daily yield per animal), feed and medicine registers, financial ledger; records support culling and profitability decisions.

Disposal of dung and waste: compost pit or biogas plant; slurry is a valuable organic manure; avoid dumping near water bodies to prevent contamination.

Daily routine: milking twice a day at fixed times, feeding before milking, cleaning the shed, washing the udder, exercising animals and observing for heat and illness.

Feeding schedule for a lactating animal: green fodder ad libitum, dry fodder, concentrate divided into two equal parts offered at milking, plus mineral mixture and salt.

Milking: wash and dry udder with a clean cloth, fore-strip a few streams into a strip cup to check for mastitis, milk fully and quickly (within 6-8 minutes), and use a milking machine correctly.

Calf management: feed colostrum within the first hour (about 10% of body weight in the first day), dehorn/disbud early, identify with ear tag, and wean after 8-12 weeks.

Dry period management: dry off about 60 days before calving, reduce concentrate, treat for mastitis and internal parasites, and give a dry-cow mineral mixture to prevent milk fever.

Transition/stage feeding: increase concentrate gradually in the last 2-3 weeks before calving (steaming up) and after calving to support peak yield, which occurs around 6-8 weeks after calving.

Heat detection aids: observation twice daily, teaser bull, chin-ball marker, tail paint and heat detector patches; standing heat is the most reliable sign.

Summer management: provide shade, cool drinking water, sprinkle water on animals, and adjust feeding to early morning and evening to reduce heat stress and milk drop.

Culling criteria: repeat breeding, chronic mastitis, low yield over a full lactation, old age, poor udder and incurable disease - cull to improve herd productivity.

Clean milk production: healthy animal, clean udder and teats, clean milker's hands and clothes, sanitised utensils, small-top milking pail, and immediate straining and cooling.

Milk composition (cow): water about 87%, fat 3.5-4.5%, protein 3.2-3.5%, lactose 4.5-5%, minerals about 0.7%; buffalo milk has higher fat (6-7%) and total solids.

Colostrum is the first milk after calving, yellowish, thick and rich in antibodies (immunoglobulins), vitamin A and minerals; it is not sold and must be fed to the calf.

Milk testing: specific gravity by lactometer (cow milk 1.026-1.032), fat by Gerber method (butyrometer), acidity by titration with 0.1 N NaOH, and clot-on-boiling test for heat stability.

Gerber method: add 10 ml sulphuric acid and 1 ml amyl alcohol to 11 ml milk in a butyrometer, centrifuge and read fat percentage directly on the scale.

Milk acidity: fresh cow milk about 0.13-0.15% lactic acid; above 0.18-0.20% indicates developed acidity from bacterial growth.

Methyl blue reduction test (MBRT) and resazurin test estimate bacterial quality; rapid reduction time means high bacterial load and poor keeping quality.

Milk-borne disease risk: brucellosis, tuberculosis, typhoid and diphtheria can spread through raw milk; pasteurisation (63°C for 30 min or 72°C for 15 s) destroys pathogens.

Cooling and storage: cool milk to 4-5°C immediately after milking; rapid cooling slows bacterial growth and preserves flavour and keeping quality.

Puberty in cattle about 12-18 months and buffalo about 15-24 months; age at first calving target about 2 years in cattle and 3 years in buffalo.

Oestrous cycle length: cattle about 21 days (18-24), buffalo about 21 days; heat duration 12-18 hours in cattle and 24-36 hours in buffalo.

Ovulation occurs about 10-14 hours after the end of standing heat in cattle; best time for AI is the mid-to-late heat period (rule: a.m./p.m. - inseminate 12 hours after first standing heat).

Gestation period: cow about 280-285 days, buffalo about 305-310 days, goat about 150 days, sheep about 148 days.

Signs of heat: standing to be mounted, mucus discharge from vulva, swollen and red vulva, bellowing, restlessness, reduced feed intake and milk drop.

Artificial insemination: collect semen from a proven bull, evaluate (motility, concentration, morphology), dilute with extender, preserve in liquid nitrogen at -196°C, and deposit in the cervix/uterine body.

Breeding methods: natural service, AI, and embryo transfer; AI prevents venereal disease spread, allows use of superior bulls and avoids keeping a bull on the farm.

Pregnancy diagnosis: non-return to heat after 21 days, rectal palpation from about 45-60 days, and ultrasound; confirm pregnancy and record expected calving date.

Repeat breeding: animal comes in heat and is bred repeatedly but fails to conceive; causes include poor heat detection, wrong AI timing, uterine infection and nutritional deficiency.

Vital signs: cattle body temperature 38-39°C, respiration 10-30 breaths/min, pulse 60-80 beats/min; buffalo temperature slightly lower; calf temperature 38.5-39.5°C.

Mastitis: inflammation of udder; signs are hot swollen quarter, clotted milk on strip cup, and reduced yield; treat by stripping frequently, intramammary antibiotics and hygiene; CMT detects subclinical cases.

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD): viral, highly contagious; vesicles on mouth and feet, salivation, lameness and high fever; prevented by vaccination and restricted movement.

Haemorrhagic septicaemia (HS): bacterial (Pasteurella), acute fever, swelling of throat and neck, death in 1-2 days; controlled by annual vaccination before monsoon.

Brucellosis: bacterial zoonosis causing abortion in late pregnancy, infertility and retained placenta; diagnosed by blood test; no treatment in animals - cull and vaccinate heifers.

Bloat: accumulation of gas in rumen; left flank distension, discomfort; first aid is to walk the animal, drench antifoaming agent, stomach tube or trocarise in severe cases.

Milk fever (hypocalcaemia): occurs around calving; muscle tremors, recumbency, cold ears; treat with slow intravenous calcium borogluconate.

First aid basics: restrain safely, control bleeding by pressure, clean wounds with antiseptic, keep the animal warm and quiet, and call a veterinarian; do not give oral medicines to an unconscious animal.

Vaccination schedule: FMD and HS annually, black quarter and anthrax in endemic areas, brucellosis in female calves, and deworming at regular intervals.

Poultry types: layer (eggs), broiler (meat), and dual purpose; popular breeds are White Leghorn and Rhode Island Red (layers), and Cobb, Ross and Vencobb (broilers).

Broiler management: brooding at about 32-34°C in week 1, reducing 2-3°C weekly; floor space about 1 square foot per bird; feed starter, grower and finisher rations; market at 6-7 weeks.

Layer management: 18-20 weeks to first egg, peak production around 28-30 weeks, about 300 eggs per hen per year in good strains; provide 14-16 hours light and calcium (limestone/grit).

Poultry housing: deep litter (paddy husk/sawdust) or cage system; litter must be dry, ventilation adequate, and birds vaccinated for Marek's, Ranikhet (ND), IBD and fowl pox.

Goat rearing: goats are browsers, need about 1.5-2 square metres floor space each; Kidding twice in 2 years; feed tree leaves, legumes and concentrate; Sirohi and Barbari are common breeds.

Sheep rearing: grazers; wool and meat; shearing once a year; foot rot and internal parasites common in wet conditions; Deccani and Nellore are important Indian breeds.

Rabbit rearing: small space, high reproduction; feed green fodder, concentrate pellets; important for meat and fur in some regions.

Piggery: fast growth, high feed conversion; exotic Large White Yorkshire and Landrace crossed with local breeds; needs clean water and wallowing to control heat.

Poultry/animal health economics: feed is about 65-70% of total cost; feed conversion ratio (FCR) = feed consumed / weight gain or eggs produced; lower FCR means better efficiency.

Cost of milk production = total cost (feed, labour, depreciation, veterinary, interest) divided by total litres of milk produced; feed is the largest single cost item.

Gross margin = gross income from milk, manure and calves minus variable costs (feed, medicine, casual labour); fixed costs are not included in gross margin.

Break-even point: the level of milk yield or sales at which total revenue equals total cost; below it the enterprise runs at a loss.

Dairy cooperative structure (three-tier): village dairy cooperative society, district milk union, and state milk federation; farmers own the society and share profits.

Milk payment: based on fat and SNF content (two-axis pricing) in most Indian cooperatives; higher fat and SNF give higher price per litre.

Marketing channels: direct sale to consumers (highest price), sale to cooperative or private dairy, and sale of value-added products (ghee, paneer, khoa, curd, flavoured milk).

Extension methods: individual contact (farm visit, office call), group methods (demonstration, field day, farmer training, result demonstration) and mass media (radio, TV, leaflets, posters).

Entrepreneurship support: subsidised loans under dairy development schemes, NABARD support, dairy cooperative membership, and training through KVK and state animal husbandry departments.

Record-based decisions: cost per litre, income over feed cost, calving interval and milk yield per animal per year are the key indicators of dairy farm profitability.