Maharashtra HSC Multi-Skill Food Processing (NSQF) cheat sheet

Mass balance: raw material input = product + by-product + waste + accumulation; yield % = (acceptable product ÷ raw material input) × 100.

Water activity (aw) = vapour pressure of water in the food ÷ vapour pressure of pure water at the same temperature; most spoilage bacteria and moulds stop growing below aw 0.60.

D-value = time at a stated temperature to reduce a microbial population by 1 log (90%); z-value = the temperature change in °C needed to change the D-value tenfold.

Low-acid canned foods (pH > 4.6) require a 12-D process against Clostridium botulinum; acid foods (pH ≤ 4.6) need only a pasteurization-type process because botulinum spores cannot germinate.

Blanching inactivates peroxidase and catalase, expels tissue gases, fixes colour and shrinks tissue before freezing or drying.

Degrees Brix (°Bx) = grams of soluble solids, expressed as sucrose, per 100 g of product; measured with a refractometer and corrected to 20 °C.

Typical unit-operation sequence: cleaning → grading/sorting → size reduction → mixing → heat treatment → separation → packaging; each step has its own mass and energy balance.

HACCP seven principles in order: hazard analysis → identify CCPs → set critical limits → monitor → corrective actions → verification → record keeping.

A CCP must carry a measurable critical limit (e.g. 72 °C for 15 s, pH ≤ 4.6, aw ≤ 0.85) with a defined monitoring frequency, responsible person and corrective action.

Prerequisite programmes - GMP, GHP, potable water, pest control, personnel hygiene, training - support HACCP but never replace it.

Cleaning removes soil with detergent; sanitizing then reduces the remaining microorganisms. Soil must be removed first because residual organic matter inactivates sanitiser.

Temperature danger zone is 5–60 °C; potentially hazardous food should not accumulate more than about 2 hours in this range.

FSSAI under the Food Safety and Standards Act 2006: basic registration up to ₹12 lakh turnover, state licence ₹12 lakh–₹20 crore, central licence above ₹20 crore.

Food handlers require a medical fitness certificate, short nails, no jewellery, clean head covering and clean uniform, and must report diarrhoea, jaundice, vomiting or skin lesions.

CIP sequence: pre-rinse → detergent circulation → intermediate rinse → sanitizer → final rinse/drain.

Heat treatments: LTLT 63 °C/30 min, HTST 72 °C/15 s, UHT 135–150 °C for 2–5 s followed by aseptic filling; all are followed by rapid cooling.

Canning requires exhausting, hermetic seaming and a retort process established by heat-penetration studies; cooling must use chlorinated water to avoid recontamination.

Freezing at −18 °C stops microbial growth but not enzyme activity, so blanch first; fast freezing produces many small ice crystals and less drip loss on thawing.

Drying reduces aw below 0.60; sun, cabinet, drum, spray and freeze drying differ in heat load on the product and in nutrient retention.

Class I preservatives: salt, sugar, vinegar, spices. Class II: benzoic acid/sodium benzoate (usually ≤ 0.1%), sorbic acid, sulphur dioxide and nitrites - only within FSSAI-permitted limits and declared on the label.

Hurdle technology combines several mild hurdles (chilling, low pH, low aw, preservative, MAP) so that no single hurdle needs to be severe.

Irradiation is measured in kGy: 0.05–0.2 kGy inhibits sprouting in onion and potato, higher doses disinfest and reduce pathogens; irradiated foods must be so labelled.

Fermentation lowers pH through lactic acid bacteria; this is the preservation basis of pickles, sauerkraut and idli/dosa batter.

Spoilage types: microbial (bacteria, yeasts, moulds), chemical (oxidation, Maillard, browning), enzymatic (polyphenol oxidase), physical (moisture migration, freezer burn, breakage).

Cereal grains store safely at 12–14% moisture; above 14% moulds and insects multiply and aflatoxin risk rises.

Chilled storage of perishables is 0–4 °C; frozen storage is −18 °C or colder with minimum temperature fluctuation to avoid recrystallization.

Controlled atmosphere storage for apples: 0–1 °C, O2 2–5%, CO2 2–5%; excessively low O2 causes fermentation and off-flavours.

FEFO - First Expired First Out - for dated and perishable stock; FIFO for undated consumables; records must show batch, date and quantity.

Rancidity is hydrolytic (lipase releases free fatty acids) or oxidative (peroxides from unsaturated fat); controlled by antioxidants, nitrogen flushing, low temperature and darkness.

Grain disinfestation uses phosphine fumigation (aluminium phosphide) or hermetic storage; monitor insect counts and grain temperature through the storage period.

Stored fruit loses weight by respiration and transpiration; respiration roughly doubles to triples for every 10 °C rise (Q10 of 2–3), so cooling slows loss.

Wheat: clean, then temper to 15–16% moisture and rest about 24 h; roller mill break and reduction rolls separate bran, semolina and flour, with extraction rates of about 72–75%.

Rice: paddy → cleaning → dehusking → milling/polishing; about 650–680 kg of white rice is obtained per tonne of paddy, of which roughly 60–65% is head rice.

Parboiling (soak, steam, dry) gelatinizes starch, hardens the grain, raises head rice yield and retains thiamine, but darkens the grain and changes cooking quality.

Pulse (dal) milling: conditioning, dehusking and splitting; pretreatments include oil–water coating and hot-water soaking to loosen the husk before pearling.

Oil extraction: expeller pressing leaves about 5–8% oil in the cake; solvent extraction with hexane recovers the remainder and produces oil cake/meal for feed.

Refining order: degumming → neutralization with alkali → bleaching → deodorization by vacuum steam distillation.

Antinutritional factors - trypsin inhibitor in soybean, phytic acid, tannins - are reduced by soaking, germination, cooking, roasting and extrusion.

Gluten is formed from glutenin and gliadin in wheat; rice, maize, soybean and millets are naturally gluten-free.

Sequence: washing → sorting/grading → peeling (mechanical, steam, lye) → trimming → blanching → filling in brine or syrup → exhausting → seaming → retorting → cooling.

Jam, jelly and marmalade set at about 65–68 °Bx, pH 3.0–3.4 and 0.5–1% pectin; verify with a refractometer and a sheet/plate test.

Low-acid vegetables (pH > 4.6) must be pressure retorted to control Clostridium botulinum; acid fruits may be pasteurized or hot-filled.

Enzymatic browning is controlled by blanching, ascorbic acid, citric acid, salt brine or sulphur dioxide.

IQF (individually quick frozen) uses a fluidized-bed or blast freezer so pieces stay free-flowing; product is then held at −18 °C.

Drying to aw below 0.60; sulphuring preserves colour of dried fruit, and osmotic dehydration in sugar syrup shortens drying time.

Fresh-cut or minimal processing relies on potable chlorinated wash water, thorough draining, modified atmosphere packaging and an unbroken 0–4 °C chain.

Fruit product standards (now under FSS Regulations) fix minimum total soluble solids and minimum fruit content for jam, squash, juice and nectar.

Cow milk composition: about 87% water, 3.5–4.5% fat, 3.2–3.5% protein, 4.6–4.9% lactose and 0.7% ash; buffalo milk contains considerably more fat (about 6–7%).

Process flow: reception → filtration/clarification → chilling → cream separation → standardization → homogenization → pasteurization → filling.

Homogenization at roughly 150–200 bar breaks fat globules to below 2 µm, preventing cream separation and improving colour and digestibility.

Gerber method for fat; titratable acidity 0.14–0.16% lactic acid for fresh cow milk; specific gravity 1.028–1.032 by lactometer; clot-on-boiling test for heat stability.

MBRT: reduction time above 5 h indicates good quality; below 1 h indicates very poor bacteriological quality; the resazurin test works on the same principle.

Products: butter by churning 35–40% fat cream; ghee is clarified butter with at least 99.5% fat; paneer by acid coagulation; dahi by Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus.

Spray drying: concentrate milk to about 45–50% solids, atomize, inlet air 180–200 °C, outlet air 80–90 °C.

Adulteration tests: iodine for starch, urea and detergent tests, and freezing-point depression for added water.

Post-mortem glycolysis lowers muscle pH from about 7.0 to 5.5–5.8; rigor mortis resolves during ageing, and electrical stimulation accelerates tenderization.

Hygienic slaughter and dressing with carcass chilling to 0–4 °C within a few hours; strict separation of edible product from inedible and condemned material.

Curing uses salt (aw reduction, flavour), nitrite at roughly 100–200 ppm (pink nitrosomyoglobin colour and botulinum control) and smoke (antimicrobial phenols, antioxidants).

Egg quality: candling, Haugh unit (albumen height relative to egg weight), yolk index; storage at 10–15 °C with high humidity, oiling or CO2 storage extends shelf life.

Fish spoils fast because of high aw, near-neutral pH, active enzymes and psychrotrophic bacteria; freshness indices are TVB-N, trimethylamine, K-value and sensory scores.

Fresh fish is rigid, with bright red gills, clear eyes, firm flesh and seaweedy odour; hold at 0–2 °C on ice and glaze before frozen storage.

Scombroid fish such as tuna and mackerel form histamine if not chilled promptly; histamine is heat stable and cooking does not destroy it.

Poultry: scald at 52–60 °C, defeather, eviscerate, then ice-water or air chill and store at 0–4 °C.

Bread: flour, water, salt, yeast, plus sugar and fat; mixing develops gluten, fermentation generates CO2, and baking at 200–230 °C gelatinizes starch, coagulates gluten and browns via Maillard reaction.

Yeast fermentation: C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2; salt controls fermentation rate, sugar supplies fermentable substrate, and over-proofing gives collapse and sour flavour.

Baking powder is sodium bicarbonate plus an acid salt (tartaric acid, ammonium bicarbonate); CO2 is released on moistening and heating, raising cakes and biscuits.

Biscuits use low-protein maida with high fat and sugar, finish at about 1–3% moisture and aw near 0.2–0.3, giving long shelf life if packed against moisture pick-up.

Sugar boiling stages: thread about 110 °C, soft ball 112–116 °C, hard ball 118–120 °C, hard crack 149–154 °C; crystallization is controlled with glucose syrup/invert sugar.

Chocolate: conching develops flavour and mouthfeel; tempering stabilizes cocoa butter in the beta crystal form, giving gloss and snap.

Extruded snacks are cooked by high shear at high temperature for a short time from corn grits or semolina; frying at 170–180 °C removes moisture and adds oil.

Frying oil quality is monitored by peroxide value, free fatty acid and polar compounds; discard when these exceed limits.

Package functions: containment, protection, preservation, convenience, communication (label) and unitization for handling.

Materials: glass (inert, heavy), tinplate and aluminium cans, paperboard, and plastics - PET for bottles, PE and PP for moisture barrier and heat resistance, plus metallized laminates for snacks.

Vacuum and MAP: CO2 inhibits bacteria and moulds, N2 acts as filler, O2 is excluded from fatty foods to prevent oxidation but may be used for red meat colour.

Aseptic laminated cartons let UHT milk and juice stay shelf-stable for months without refrigeration until opening.

FSSAI label essentials: product name, ingredient list in descending order of weight, nutrition information, veg/non-veg mark, net quantity, batch number, date of manufacture and best-before/use-by, storage instructions, allergen declaration and FSSAI licence number.

Nutrition panel: energy (kcal), protein, fat, carbohydrate and sugar per 100 g or 100 mL, plus declared vitamins/minerals when a claim is made.

Cold-chain logistics: pre-cooling at source, refrigerated transport at 0–4 °C, temperature data loggers, and no break in the chain at the retail stage.

Quality assurance covers the whole system - design, suppliers, process control and documentation; quality control is the testing of product against specifications.

Recognized standards: ISO 22000, FSSC 22000, BRCGS, GMP/GHP, and the FSSAI Schedule 4 hygiene requirements for licensed food businesses.

Proximate analysis: moisture by hot-air oven at about 105 °C to constant weight, fat by Soxhlet with petroleum ether, protein by Kjeldahl (N × 6.25), ash in a muffle furnace at about 550 °C.

Instrumental testing: pH meter, refractometer for °Brix, spectrophotometer, HPLC for additives and vitamins, GC for fatty acids and pesticide residues.

Sampling plans fix sample size and acceptance number per lot; retain samples for shelf-life verification and for investigation of complaints.

Effluent strength is measured by BOD (5 days at 20 °C), COD, total suspended solids and pH; dairy whey and fruit wash water have very high BOD and need treatment before discharge.

Waste hierarchy: reduce → reuse → recycle → recover (biogas, compost) → dispose; by-products include pectin from citrus peel, oil cake as feed and whey solids as lactose/protein.

Break-even quantity = fixed cost ÷ (selling price per unit − variable cost per unit); margin of safety = (actual sales − break-even sales) ÷ actual sales.

Business plan sections: product and process, market and competitors, operations, management, financials (costing, projected profit and loss, cash flow) and risk assessment.

FSSAI licence tier must match turnover: basic registration ≤ ₹12 lakh, state licence ₹12 lakh–₹20 crore, central licence above ₹20 crore; the licence number is printed on the label.

Support available to food-processing entrepreneurs: PMFME, PMEGP, Mudra loans (Shishu, Kishore, Tarun) and Startup India; a detailed project report is required for most applications.

Working capital = current assets − current liabilities; food businesses need it because raw material purchase is seasonal while sales are spread through the year.

PPE in a food plant: head covering, gloves, apron, safety shoes, eye and ear protection; no loose clothing near rotating shafts, and lockout-tagout before maintenance.

Fire classes: A for wood, paper and plastic, B for oil and fat, C for gas, D for metal; never use water on oil or fat fires - use CO2, foam or dry powder.

Employability basics: a written CV, interview preparation, clear workplace communication, teamwork and punctuality; food handlers also need a valid medical fitness certificate.