Maharashtra HSC Psychology cheat sheet

Definition: psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes; 'scientific' distinguishes it from common-sense psychology.

Goals of psychology: description, explanation, prediction, and control (modification) of behaviour.

Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychology laboratory at Leipzig in 1879; he used introspection to study conscious experience.

Structuralism (Titchener) analysed consciousness into elements; functionalism (William James) studied how mental processes help adaptation.

Psychoanalysis (Freud) emphasises unconscious motives and early childhood; behaviourism (Watson, Skinner) restricts psychology to observable behaviour.

Gestalt school (Wertheimer, Köhler, Koffka) holds that perception and learning are organised wholes, not sums of parts; 'the whole is more than the sum of its parts'.

Humanistic psychology (Maslow, Rogers) stresses free will, self-actualisation, and the unique person; cognitive psychology studies information processing.

Methods: observation, case study, survey, correlation, and experiment; only the experiment permits causal inference through manipulation and control of variables.

In an experiment the independent variable is manipulated and the dependent variable measured; extraneous variables are held constant and confounds must be eliminated.

Ethical safeguards in human research: informed consent, confidentiality, right to withdraw, and debriefing; deception must be justified and undone afterwards.

Neuron parts: dendrites receive, soma integrates, axon conducts, myelin sheath speeds conduction, terminal buttons release neurotransmitter into the synapse.

Resting potential is about -70 mV; depolarisation past threshold produces an action potential, and conduction follows the all-or-none law.

Major neurotransmitters: acetylcholine (muscle and memory), dopamine (movement, reward), serotonin (mood, sleep), GABA (inhibition), norepinephrine (arousal).

Central nervous system = brain + spinal cord; peripheral nervous system = somatic (voluntary) + autonomic (involuntary).

Autonomic nervous system divides into sympathetic (fight-or-flight: pupil dilation, faster heart, glucose release) and parasympathetic (rest-and-digest, energy conservation).

Hindbrain: medulla (respiration, heartbeat), pons (sleep, arousal), cerebellum (balance, coordination); midbrain relays sensory and motor impulses.

Forebrain: thalamus relays sensory input, hypothalamus regulates hunger, thirst and temperature, limbic system (amygdala, hippocampus) handles emotion and memory.

Cerebral cortex lobes: frontal (motor, planning, speech production), parietal (somatosensory), temporal (auditory, memory), occipital (vision).

Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the blood: pituitary is the 'master gland', thyroid controls metabolism, adrenal medulla secretes adrenaline, gonads secrete sex hormones.

Genetics: genotype is the genetic constitution, phenotype the observable expression; dominant and recessive alleles, chromosomes (23 pairs in humans), and twin studies separate heredity from environment.

Sensation is the detection of physical energy by receptors; perception is the interpretation and organisation of that sensory information.

Absolute threshold: the minimum intensity detectable 50% of the time; difference threshold (just noticeable difference) follows Weber's law - a constant fraction of the original stimulus.

Signal detection theory separates sensitivity (d') from response bias (criterion), showing that detection depends on both sensory evidence and decision factors.

Sensory adaptation is reduced responsiveness to a constant stimulus; subliminal stimulation lies below the absolute threshold.

Gestalt laws of perceptual organisation: proximity, similarity, closure, continuity, and figure-ground segregation.

Depth cues: binocular - retinal disparity and convergence; monocular - linear perspective, relative size, interposition, texture gradient, motion parallax.

Perceptual constancies (size, shape, colour, brightness) keep objects stable despite changing retinal images; size constancy explains the Müller-Lyer and Ponzo illusions.

Selective attention is focusing on one stimulus while ignoring others; the cocktail-party effect shows listeners can notice their own name in an unattended channel.

Divided attention allows simultaneous tasks only when they are automatic; sustained attention (vigilance) declines over time.

Top-down processing uses knowledge and expectation; bottom-up processing starts from raw sensory features. Perceptual set is a readiness to perceive in a particular way.

Classical conditioning (Pavlov): a neutral conditioned stimulus paired repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response.

Acquisition is the learning phase; extinction is the weakening of the CR when the CS is presented alone; spontaneous recovery is the return of the CR after a rest period.

Stimulus generalisation is responding to similar stimuli; discrimination is responding only to the reinforced CS.

Operant conditioning (Skinner): behaviour is shaped by its consequences - reinforcement increases behaviour, punishment decreases it.

Positive contingency adds a stimulus, negative contingency removes one; positive reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus, negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant one.

Punishment suppresses behaviour but has side effects: fear, aggression, and no teaching of the desired alternative.

Schedules: continuous reinforcement gives fastest learning but quickest extinction; partial schedules (fixed/variable ratio and interval) resist extinction, and variable ratio produces the highest, steadiest rate.

Shaping reinforces successive approximations to a target behaviour; chaining links component responses in sequence.

Premack principle: a more preferred activity can reinforce a less preferred one.

Observational learning (Bandura): attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation; in the Bobo doll study children imitated aggression they had seen rewarded.

Three memory stores (Atkinson-Shiffrin): sensory memory (iconic ~0.5 s, echoic ~2–4 s), short-term memory (~20 s, capacity 7±2 chunks), long-term memory (unlimited, relatively permanent).

Encoding types: visual, acoustic, semantic; semantic encoding gives the best long-term retention.

Working memory (Baddeley) has a central executive plus phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and episodic buffer.

Long-term memory types: explicit (declarative) - episodic and semantic; implicit (non-declarative) - procedural skills, priming, conditioning.

Serial position effect: primacy reflects long-term storage, recency reflects short-term storage; the middle items are recalled worst.

Retrieval cues and context-dependent memory: recall is better in the same context or mood as encoding (state-dependent memory).

Interference theory: proactive interference - old learning blocks new; retroactive interference - new learning blocks old.

Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve: most forgetting occurs rapidly in the first hours or days, then levels off.

Other explanations of forgetting: decay, encoding failure, retrieval failure, motivated forgetting (Freud's repression).

Memory improvement: chunking, rehearsal, elaboration, mnemonics (acronyms, method of loci), spaced practice and organisation.

Motivation is the internal state that activates, directs, and sustains behaviour; intrinsic motivation comes from the activity itself, extrinsic from external rewards.

Maslow's hierarchy, bottom to top: physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, self-actualisation; lower needs generally dominate until satisfied.

Drive-reduction theory (Hull): a biological need creates a drive, and behaviour reduces it to restore homeostasis.

Arousal theory: performance is optimal at moderate arousal; the Yerkes-Dodson law states that complex tasks are best performed at lower arousal than simple tasks.

Incentive theory: behaviour is pulled by external goals; cognitive approaches stress expectancy and the value of the goal.

Achievement motivation (McClelland): high need for achievement predicts preference for moderately difficult tasks and personal responsibility for outcomes.

Theories of emotion: James-Lange (bodily change first, then emotion), Cannon-Bard (bodily change and emotion simultaneously), Schachter-Singer two-factor (arousal plus cognitive label).

Facial feedback hypothesis: facial expression can influence the felt emotion; Ekman identified basic emotions with universal facial expressions.

Emotional components: subjective feeling, physiological arousal, cognitive appraisal, and expressive behaviour; the limbic system, especially the amygdala, mediates emotion.

Intelligence is the ability to learn from experience, reason, and adapt effectively to the environment; aptitude predicts the capacity to learn a specific skill.

Spearman: general factor 'g' plus specific factors 's'; Thurstone proposed primary mental abilities; Guilford's structure-of-intellect model uses operations, contents, and products.

Gardner's multiple intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic.

Sternberg's triarchic theory: analytical, creative, and practical intelligence; emotional intelligence (Goleman) covers self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skill.

IQ formula (ratio): MA/CA × 100; modern tests use deviation IQ with mean 100 and SD 15.

Wechsler scales yield verbal and performance scores plus a full-scale IQ; Stanford-Binet is individually administered and yields a deviation IQ.

Reliability is consistency of scores over time; validity is whether a test measures what it claims; a test can be reliable without being valid, but not vice versa.

Norms make scores interpretable by comparison with a standardisation sample; culture-fair tests reduce language and cultural loading.

Distribution of IQ approximates the normal curve; about 68% of scores fall between 85 and 115.

Aptitude tests (e.g., DAT) predict future performance in a specific area; achievement tests measure knowledge already acquired.

Personality is the relatively stable pattern of behaviour, thoughts, and feelings that distinguishes one person from another.

Freud's structure: id (pleasure principle, unconscious drives), ego (reality principle, mediator), superego (conscience and ego-ideal).

Psychosexual stages: oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital; fixation at a stage is said to shape adult traits.

Defence mechanisms: repression, projection, displacement, rationalisation, reaction formation, sublimation, denial - all operate unconsciously to reduce anxiety.

Trait theories: Allport's cardinal, central, and secondary traits; Cattell's 16 source traits; Eysenck's dimensions extraversion-introversion, neuroticism-stability, psychoticism; the Big Five (OCEAN) - openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism.

Humanistic theory: Rogers's self-concept, unconditional positive regard, and congruence between real and ideal self; Maslow's self-actualising person.

Social-cognitive theory (Bandura): reciprocal determinism among person, behaviour, and environment; Rotter's locus of control distinguishes internal from external control.

Projective tests (Rorschach inkblots, TAT) use ambiguous stimuli and have low reliability and validity; self-report inventories (MMPI, 16PF, NEO-PI) are more objective and standardised.

Assessment methods: interview, observation, rating scales, situational tests, and psychometric inventories; ethical use requires confidentiality and qualified administration.

Attitude has cognitive, affective, and behavioural (conative) components; it is learned and relatively enduring.

Attitude change: the Yale persuasion model uses source, message, and receiver; cognitive dissonance (Festinger) motivates change when behaviour and belief conflict.

Prejudice is a negative attitude toward a group; discrimination is the behavioural expression; stereotypes are overgeneralised cognitive beliefs.

Sources of prejudice: social learning, in-group/out-group bias, scapegoating, and the authoritarian personality; the Robbers Cave study showed competition creates hostility and superordinate goals reduce it.

Group processes: social facilitation (improved performance on simple tasks before an audience), social loafing (reduced effort in a group), deindividuation, group polarisation, and groupthink.

Conformity (Asch): people yield to a unanimous wrong majority; obedience (Milgram) is highest with a legitimate authority and proximity of the authority.

Interpersonal attraction: proximity, physical attractiveness, similarity of attitudes, and reciprocal liking; Sternberg's triangular theory - intimacy, passion, commitment.

Prosocial behaviour: bystander apathy and diffusion of responsibility reduce helping; altruism is helping without expected reward.

Attribution: internal (dispositional) versus external (situational) causes; the fundamental attribution error overweights dispositional causes for others' behaviour.

Adjustment is the process of maintaining a balance between personal needs and environmental demands; coping may be problem-focused (change the situation) or emotion-focused (regulate distress).

Stress is the response to demands that exceed perceived resources; sources include frustration, conflict (approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, approach-avoidance), pressure, and change.

Selye's general adaptation syndrome: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion; prolonged stress depletes resources and impairs immunity.

Health effects of stress: elevated cortisol and blood pressure, suppressed immune function, and increased risk of coronary heart disease; Type A behaviour (hostility, time urgency) is associated with cardiac risk.

Frustration-aggression hypothesis: frustration can produce aggression, though it is neither necessary nor sufficient.

Anxiety disorders: generalised anxiety disorder, panic disorder, phobias, OCD, and PTSD; a phobia is an intense, irrational fear of a specific object or situation.

Mood disorders: major depressive disorder (persistent low mood, anhedonia, sleep and appetite change) and bipolar disorder (alternating manic and depressive episodes).

Schizophrenia: positive symptoms - delusions, hallucinations, disorganised speech; negative symptoms - flat affect, avolition, social withdrawal; treatment includes antipsychotics and psychosocial support.

Personality disorders (e.g., antisocial, borderline) involve enduring, inflexible patterns that impair functioning; somatoform disorders present physical symptoms without adequate medical explanation.

Classification uses DSM and ICD criteria; a disorder requires clinically significant distress or impairment, not merely unusual behaviour.