Maharashtra SSC Agriculture Pre-Voc/NSQF cheat sheet

Agriculture is the science and art of cultivating soil, growing crops and raising livestock; it covers crop production, animal husbandry, fisheries and forestry.

Crop classification by season: kharif crops are sown with the monsoon (June-July) and harvested in autumn (rice, cotton, soybean, groundnut); rabi crops are sown in winter (October-November) and harvested in spring (wheat, gram, mustard); zaid is the short summer season (moong, watermelon, fodder).

Classification by life cycle: annual crops complete their cycle in one season (rice, wheat); biennial crops take two years (sugarcane planted and ratooned, sugar beet); perennial crops live several years (mango, coconut).

Classification by use: cereals (rice, wheat, maize), pulses (gram, tur, moong), oilseeds (groundnut, soybean, sunflower), fibre (cotton, jute), sugar (sugarcane), fodder, and cash/plantation crops.

Crop production is a sequence: land preparation, seed selection and treatment, sowing at correct depth and spacing, nutrient and water management, weed/pest/disease control, harvesting and post-harvest handling.

Cropping intensity = (gross cropped area / net sown area) x 100; it measures how many times land is cropped in a year.

Cropping systems include sole cropping, mixed cropping (two or more crops sown together without row arrangement), intercropping (crops in definite rows) and sequence cropping/multiple cropping.

Seed rate and plant population: plant population per unit area = (area / (row spacing x plant spacing)); closer spacing raises population and competition for light, water and nutrients.

Agro-climatic zones are defined by rainfall, temperature, soil type and cropping pattern; Maharashtra has nine agro-climatic zones, from the heavy-rainfall Konkan coast to the low-rainfall Vidarbha and Marathwada plateaus.

Essential plant nutrients: 17 elements - macronutrients N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S; micronutrients Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Mo, Cl, Ni. C, H, O come from air and water.

Law of the minimum (Liebig): yield is limited by the nutrient in shortest supply relative to need, not by the total nutrients present.

Soil testing gives available N, P, K, pH, electrical conductivity and organic carbon; fertiliser doses are adjusted from soil test values and the crop's recommended dose.

Organic carbon below 0.5% indicates poor fertility; regular addition of FYM, compost, green manure and crop residues builds organic carbon and improves structure and water holding.

Soil erosion by water proceeds as splash, sheet, rill and gully erosion; wind erosion removes the finest, most fertile particles first.

Universal Soil Loss Equation: A = R x K x LS x C x P, where A is soil loss, R rainfall erosivity, K soil erodibility, LS slope length and steepness, C crop cover and P conservation practice.

Contour ploughing, contour bunding, graded bunds, terracing, grassed waterways, check dams and vegetative barriers reduce runoff velocity and trap soil on sloping land.

Wind erosion control uses shelterbelts, strip cropping, stubble mulching and stabilising the surface; maintaining cover is the single most effective measure.

Soil conservation also means managing salinity and alkalinity: gypsum application reclaims sodic soils, while drainage and leaching manage saline soils.

Nitrogen is a constituent of proteins, chlorophyll and enzymes; deficiency shows as general yellowing (chlorosis) starting on older leaves because N is mobile in the plant.

Phosphorus supports root development, energy transfer (ATP) and seed formation; deficiency causes stunted growth and purplish discolouration of older leaves.

Potassium regulates stomatal movement, enzyme activation and water balance; deficiency shows marginal scorching and weak stems, again first on older leaves.

Calcium and boron are immobile in the plant, so their deficiencies appear on young leaves and growing points; boron deficiency causes hollow stem and poor fruit set.

Zinc deficiency causes interveinal chlorosis and 'khaira' in rice and little-leaf in citrus; iron deficiency causes interveinal chlorosis on young leaves of alkaline soils.

Nitrogen fixation: symbiotic Rhizobium in legume root nodules and free-living Azotobacter/Azospirillum; blue-green algae and Azolla fix N in flooded rice.

Nutrient uptake is affected by soil pH, moisture, temperature, aeration and antagonism between ions (excess K can depress Mg uptake).

Foliar feeding gives a quick correction of micronutrient deficiency but cannot replace soil application for major nutrients.

Fertilisers are classified as straight (single nutrient, e.g. urea, single superphosphate, muriate of potash), complex (two or more nutrients, e.g. DAP 18-46-0) and mixed (physical blends).

Urea contains 46% N; single superphosphate about 16% P2O5 plus 11% S and 19-20% Ca; DAP 18% N and 46% P2O5; muriate of potash (KCl) about 60% K2O; sulphate of potash about 50% K2O.

Nutrient quantity from a fertiliser = (recommended nutrient dose x 100) / percentage nutrient in the fertiliser; e.g. 120 kg N/ha needs 120 x 100/46 = 261 kg urea.

Bulky organic manures: FYM (about 0.5% N, 0.2% P2O5, 0.5% K2O), compost, green manure (sunhemp, dhaincha), vermicompost and oil cakes; they supply nutrients slowly and improve soil physical condition.

Biofertilisers are living inoculants: Rhizobium for legumes, Azotobacter and Azospirillum for non-legumes, phosphate-solubilising bacteria and mycorrhiza for phosphorus; they supplement, not replace, chemical fertilisers.

Split application of nitrogen matches supply to crop demand and reduces leaching loss; phosphorus and potassium are usually applied basally because they are less mobile.

Integrated nutrient management combines organic manures, biofertilisers and mineral fertilisers to sustain yield while protecting soil health.

Fertiliser placement methods: broadcasting, band placement, placement in the root zone, fertigation through drip; deep placement of urea reduces volatilisation loss.

Over-application of nitrogen causes lodging, delayed maturity, pest susceptibility and nitrate pollution of groundwater.

Water requirement of a crop = evapotranspiration (ET) plus losses; irrigation scheduling aims to refill the root zone before available water falls to the stress point.

Irrigation water quality is judged by electrical conductivity, sodium adsorption ratio and residual sodium carbonate; high salinity or sodicity damages soil structure and yields.

Surface methods: flooding, border strip, furrow and basin irrigation; they are cheap but have uneven distribution and higher conveyance losses.

Sprinkler irrigation suits undulating land and closely sown crops; it can cause leaf scorch in saline water and is affected by wind.

Drip irrigation delivers water near the root zone, saving 30-50% water versus surface flooding, and supports fertigation; it suits wide-row crops and orchards.

Water use efficiency (WUE) = crop yield / water consumed (kg per hectare-mm or kg/m3); irrigation efficiency = water stored in the root zone / water delivered.

Critical irrigation stages: rice at panicle initiation and flowering; wheat at crown root initiation (21 days), tillering, jointing, flowering and milk stage; cotton at flowering and boll formation.

Duty of water is the area irrigated per unit volume of water (hectares per cumec of continuous flow); delta is the total depth of water needed by a crop over its season, in cm.

A watershed is the area draining to a common outlet; watershed management plans soil and water conservation, land use and crop selection within that boundary.

Watershed treatment follows ridge-to-valley sequencing: contour trenches and afforestation on the ridge, contour bunds and waterways on the slopes, and check dams or percolation tanks in the valley.

Rainwater harvesting structures include farm ponds, percolation tanks, check dams, nala bunds and recharge pits; they raise groundwater and provide protective irrigation.

Runoff volume = rainfall depth x catchment area x runoff coefficient; the coefficient rises with slope, compaction and bare soil, and falls with good vegetative cover.

Conjunctive use of surface and groundwater balances supply; over-extraction of groundwater causes falling water tables, land subsidence and saline intrusion in coastal areas.

Drainage removes excess water: surface drainage controls waterlogging, subsurface drainage with pipes or mole drains lowers the water table and helps reclaim saline land.

Micro-irrigation and mulching reduce evaporation loss; mulching can cut soil evaporation substantially and also suppresses weeds.

Crop choice and cropping pattern should match water availability; low-water-demand crops and short-duration varieties reduce risk in rainfed watersheds.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) combines cultural, mechanical, biological and chemical methods, using chemical control as the last resort and only above the economic threshold level.

Economic threshold level (ETL) is the pest population at which control measures must be applied to prevent the population from reaching the economic injury level.

Pest categories: chewing insects (caterpillars, beetles) damage foliage; sucking insects (aphids, jassids, whiteflies, thrips) remove sap and transmit viruses.

Disease agents are fungi (blights, rusts, wilts), bacteria (blights, cankers), viruses (mosaics, leaf curl) and nematodes; abiotic disorders result from nutrient or weather stress.

Disease control uses resistant varieties, treated and certified seed, crop rotation, sanitation, and fungicides/bactericides applied at correct dose and interval.

Weed classification: grasses (Echinochloa, Cynodon), sedges (Cyperus) and broadleaf weeds (Parthenium, Amaranthus); weeds compete for water, nutrients, light and space.

Weed control methods: mechanical (hand weeding, hoeing), cultural (crop rotation, closer spacing, mulching), biological and chemical (herbicides - pre-emergence and post-emergence).

Herbicide selectivity depends on dose, formulation, stage of crop and weed, and method of application; wrong dose or drift can injure the crop.

Safe pesticide practice: read the label, wear protective clothing, respect the pre-harvest interval, observe the waiting period, and never reuse pesticide containers.

Horticulture covers fruit (pomology), vegetables (olericulture), flowers (floriculture) and plantation crops; it generally gives higher returns per unit area than field crops.

Vegetables are classified as solanaceous (tomato, brinjal, chilli), cucurbits (cucumber, bitter gourd, watermelon), cole crops (cabbage, cauliflower), root crops (carrot, radish) and leafy vegetables (spinach, coriander).

Nursery raising: use a raised bed with well-drained soil and partial shade, sow in lines, thin out, and transplant seedlings at the right stage with a soil ball to reduce shock.

Vegetative propagation methods include cuttings, layering, grafting, budding and tissue culture; they preserve variety characteristics, unlike seed propagation in cross-pollinated crops.

Pruning and training control plant shape and light penetration; in fruit trees, pruning balances vegetative growth with flowering and fruiting.

Orchard layout uses square, rectangular, quincunx, hexagonal or contour systems; spacing depends on the mature canopy size of the cultivar and rootstock.

Fruit crops of Maharashtra include mango, banana, grape, pomegranate, orange, sweet lime and sapota; major mango varieties include Alphonso, Kesar and Dashehari.

Post-harvest handling: harvest at correct maturity, grade, pre-cool, pack in ventilated crates, and store at recommended temperature and humidity to reduce losses.

Protected cultivation (polyhouse, shade net, plastic mulch) modifies temperature, light and humidity and enables off-season vegetable production.

Ruminants (cattle, buffalo, goat, sheep) digest fibre through rumen microbes; a balanced ration includes roughage, concentrate, minerals and clean water.

Balanced ration supplies all nutrients in correct proportion; a ration is the total feed given in 24 hours, while a diet is the feed mixture.

Milch animal feeding: about 1 kg concentrate for maintenance plus 1 kg for every 2.5-3 litres of milk above 6 litres for crossbred cows; green fodder should be fed liberally.

Cattle breeds: milch - Sahiwal, Red Sindhi, Gir, Tharparkar; draft - Khillar, Nagori, Amrit Mahal; exotic - Holstein Friesian, Jersey. Buffalo breeds include Murrah, Jaffarabadi, Mehsana and Surti.

Signs of heat (oestrus) in cattle: restlessness, mucus discharge, standing to be mounted, frequent urination; heat period averages 12-18 hours and the cycle about 21 days.

Gestation period: cow about 280 days, buffalo about 310 days, goat and sheep about 150 days.

Poultry: broilers are reared for meat in 6-7 weeks with a feed conversion ratio of about 1.6-1.8; layers start laying at 18-20 weeks and lay about 300 eggs per year in good strains.

Poultry housing needs good ventilation, dry litter, adequate space (about 1 sq ft per bird for broilers) and clean water; biosecurity prevents disease entry.

Common diseases: foot and mouth disease and haemorrhagic septicaemia in cattle; ranikhet (Newcastle) disease and fowl pox in poultry; vaccination and hygiene are the main controls.

Clean milk production: wash udder, use clean utensils, discard foremilk, cool milk promptly, and maintain the cold chain to prevent spoilage.

Tillage implements: mouldboard plough for primary tillage and inversion; disc plough for hard, sticky soils; cultivator and harrow for secondary tillage and seedbed preparation.

Sowing implements: seed drill places seed in rows at uniform depth and spacing; dibbler, planter and transplanters suit specific crops; seed-cum-fertiliser drill places both together.

Intercultivation and weeding tools: hand hoe, khurpi, wheel hoe, and power weeder; they loosen soil and remove weeds between crop rows.

Sprayers: knapsack, foot, rocker and power sprayers; boom sprayers cover large areas; calibration ensures the correct dose per hectare and prevents over- or under-application.

Harvesting and threshing: sickles, combine harvesters, threshers, winnowers and cleaners; moisture content at harvest and threshing affects grain quality and losses.

Tractor power is measured in horsepower (hp); power take-off (PTO) drives implements such as rotavators, threshers and sprayers.

Field capacity and field efficiency: theoretical field capacity = (width x speed)/constant; actual area covered is lower because of turns, refilling and breakdowns.

Maintenance rules: clean and oil tools after use, sharpen cutting edges, check nuts and bolts, store under cover, and follow the operator manual for engine servicing.

Safety: keep guards in place, disengage PTO before servicing, switch off the engine before clearing blockages, and never allow riders on implements.

Farm management decisions rest on comparing costs and returns; the objective is to maximise net income while conserving resources.

Cost concepts: fixed costs (land rent, depreciation, interest on fixed capital) do not vary with output; variable costs (seed, fertiliser, labour, irrigation) vary with the level of production.

Gross income = yield x price; net income = gross income - total cost; farm profit is judged over the whole farm, not a single enterprise.

Cost of cultivation per hectare = total variable and fixed costs allocated to the crop; cost of production per quintal = cost of cultivation / yield per hectare.

Marginal cost and marginal return: additional input should be applied only while the additional return exceeds the additional cost.

Farm records and accounts - physical records (area, yield, inputs) and financial records (cash book, ledger, balance sheet) - support planning, credit and tax compliance.

Marketing functions: assembling, grading, storage, transport, processing and distribution; market channels link producer to consumer, and each intermediary adds cost and margin.

Agricultural marketing institutions in India include regulated markets (APMC), cooperative marketing societies, NAFED, and e-NAM for electronic trading.

Price factors: demand and supply, perishability, seasonality, transport cost, grading and market information; Minimum Support Price protects producers of notified crops.

Agro-based enterprises include seed production, nursery raising, mushroom cultivation, beekeeping, vermicompost, food processing, dairy, poultry and custom hiring of machinery.

A business plan states the product, market, production process, investment, sources of finance, expected costs, returns and break-even point.

Break-even point = fixed cost / (selling price per unit - variable cost per unit); it shows the output needed to cover all costs.

Working capital funds day-to-day operations (seed, feed, labour, fuel), while fixed capital funds land, buildings, machinery and equipment.

Sources of agricultural finance: own funds, cooperative credit societies, regional rural banks, commercial banks, NABARD refinance, and government subsidy schemes.

Value addition through grading, cleaning, packaging, branding and processing raises the share of the consumer rupee retained by the producer.

Market linkage through farmer producer organisations (FPOs), cooperatives, contract farming and direct marketing reduces dependence on intermediaries.

Record keeping, cost control, quality assurance and timely repayment of credit are basic requirements for a viable enterprise.

Risk management uses crop insurance (Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana), diversification, staggered production and forward agreements.

Personal protective equipment for farm work: gloves, boots, goggles, mask/respirator, apron and hat; PPE is mandatory when handling pesticides or operating machinery.

Pesticide safety: read the label and leaflet, check the expiry date, use the correct dose, never mix incompatible products, and observe the pre-harvest interval.

First aid for pesticide exposure: remove contaminated clothing, wash skin with plenty of soap and water, flush eyes with clean water for 15 minutes, and take the label to a doctor.

Never eat, drink or smoke while spraying; spray in the direction of the wind, avoid spraying in strong wind or high heat, and bathe after spraying.

Empty pesticide containers must be punctured and buried or returned as per rules; they must never be reused for food or water.

Tool safety: use the right tool for the job, keep cutting edges sharp and pointed away from the body, and replace cracked handles.

Machine safety: stop the engine before clearing blockages, keep hands away from moving parts, and do not remove guards.

Electrical and irrigation safety: earth pumps properly, avoid wet hands on switches, and guard open wells and farm ponds.

Farm hygiene and animal handling: wash hands after handling animals, keep sheds clean, and use restraints when treating large animals.

Sustainable agriculture meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations; it balances productivity, profitability, environmental quality and social equity.

Soil, water and air pollution from agriculture arises from excessive fertiliser and pesticide use, burning of residues and untreated animal waste.

Organic farming relies on organic manures, biofertilisers, crop rotation and biological pest control, avoiding synthetic fertilisers and pesticides; certification requires a conversion period.

Conservation agriculture rests on three principles: minimum soil disturbance, permanent soil cover (residues/mulch) and crop diversification through rotation.

Crop residue burning destroys organic matter and soil microbes and causes air pollution; alternatives are mulching, composting, use of a happy seeder and baling for fodder or fuel.

Biodiversity and agroforestry: trees on farms provide fuel, fodder, shade and habitat, and reduce erosion and wind damage.

Integrated farming system combines crops, livestock, fishery and horticulture so that waste from one component becomes input for another, raising income and reducing risk.

Climate-smart practices include drought-tolerant and short-duration varieties, water harvesting, micro-irrigation, crop diversification and weather-based advisory services.

Pollution control: follow recommended fertiliser doses based on soil tests, use bio-pesticides where possible, and manage animal waste through composting or biogas plants.

Apiculture: a honeybee colony has one queen, many workers and drones; a strong colony yields honey and provides pollination services that raise yields of many crops.

Sericulture: mulberry leaves feed silkworm larvae; rearing stages are egg, larva, pupa and adult moth, with cocoon production as the commercial output.

Mushroom cultivation uses pasteurised compost or straw substrate, controlled temperature and humidity, and clean spawn; oyster and button mushrooms are common.

Vermicomposting uses earthworms to convert organic waste into nutrient-rich castings; it needs moisture, shade and a carbon-to-nitrogen balance in the feed material.

Fishery and aquaculture: composite fish culture mixes surface, column and bottom feeders (catla, rohu, mrigal) to use all pond niches.

Agroforestry systems include agri-silviculture, silvopasture and agri-horti-silviculture; they diversify income and improve soil and water conservation.

Farm planning uses a cropping calendar and resource budget so that labour, water and machinery are available when needed.

Extension services - Krishi Vigyan Kendra, agricultural officers and mass media - transfer technology and advisories to farmers.

Weather-based farm decisions: use rainfall forecasts for sowing and spraying, and avoid spraying before expected rain to prevent wash-off.