Maharashtra SSC Avesta L2/L3 (MSBSHSE) key terms

The alphabet in which Avesta texts are written, derived from Pahlavi and written right to left with about fourteen basic letters that change shape when joined to neighbours.

Writing Avestan sounds with Latin letters and diacritics so readers can pronounce the text without learning the original script; standard schemes mark long vowels and special consonants.

Representing Avestan words in a modern script to show pronunciation rather than letter-by-letter equivalents, often using italics and simplified diacritics in study editions.

The direction in which Avestan script runs, starting at the right edge of the line and moving leftward, the same direction used by Pahlavi and other Middle Iranian scripts.

The Middle Persian writing system from which the Avestan alphabet was developed; many Avestan letter shapes and the practice of writing right to left come from it.

A small mark added above or below a letter to show a vowel length, nasalisation or a special sound, for example the marks that distinguish Avestan vowels in transliteration.

A vowel held for about twice the length of a short vowel; in Avestan transliteration long ā, ī and ū are marked with a macron and can change a word's meaning or grammar.

A vowel of brief duration, written a, i, u in transliteration without a macron; recognising short against long vowels is essential for correct reading and inflection.

A unit of pronunciation built around one vowel sound; counting syllables helps a reader place stress and recite Avestan metre correctly.

The rhythmic pattern of long and short syllables in a verse line; many Avestan hymns, especially the Gathas, follow fixed syllabic patterns used in recitation.

The pattern by which Avestan nouns change endings for case, number and gender; a student learns which ending marks subject, object, possession and other roles.

The final part of a noun, pronoun or adjective that shows its grammatical role in a sentence, such as subject, direct object, or possessor.

The case used for the subject of a sentence, the person or thing performing the action; in Avestan it often ends in -ō or -a for masculine nouns.

The case marking the direct object of a verb, the thing acted upon; Avestan accusative endings vary by stem and gender.

The case expressing possession or close relationship, usually translated with 'of'; it appears in phrases naming a god's attribute or a person's lineage.

The case marking the indirect object or the person for whose benefit something is done, often translated with 'to' or 'for'.

The case expressing the means or instrument by which an action is done, translated with 'by' or 'with'; it is common in ritual and praise formulas.

The case indicating separation, origin or cause, translated with 'from' or 'because of'; it survives in a limited set of Avestan forms.

The case used when addressing someone directly, as in prayers that call on a deity by name; it often lacks a final ending or has a special form.

The grammatical class of a noun, masculine, feminine or neuter, which controls the endings of the noun and of any adjective agreeing with it.

The matching of an adjective, pronoun or verb with its noun or subject in gender, number and case, a rule a reader uses to link words in a sentence.

The grammatical distinction of singular, dual and plural; Avestan keeps a dual form used for pairs, such as two eyes or two hands.

A grammatical number referring to exactly two persons or things; Avestan verbs and nouns have dual endings that differ from singular and plural.

The system of changing a verb's form to show tense, mood, person and number; Avestan verbs also mark voice, active or middle.

The verb form describing action happening now or generally; in Avestan it is built from the present stem and carries the main personal endings.

The base part of a word to which endings are added; Avestan nouns have stems ending in vowels or consonants, and verbs have present and past stems.

A verb form between active and passive, often showing that the subject acts for itself or is personally involved; some Avestan ritual verbs appear in it.

The ordinary verb form in which the subject performs the action on something else, as opposed to the middle voice.

A short uninflected word such as a conjunction or emphasis marker; Avestan uses particles like -ca ('and') attached to the end of a word.

A word that leans on the preceding word and has no accent of its own, such as the Avestan conjunction -ca, which is written joined to the word before it.

The change in sounds that happens where two words meet in connected speech or recitation, which can alter the written form a reader sees.

The most sacred Zoroastrian prayer, also called the Yatha Ahu Vairyo from its opening words; it praises the will of Ahura Mazda and is recited in many rituals.

A short prayer praising truth and righteousness (asha); it is one of the three central Zoroastrian prayers and is often recited with the Ahuna Vairya.

The main Zoroastrian act of worship and the text recited during it; the Yasna includes the Gathas and is performed by priests around a fire and consecrated offerings.

One of seventeen hymns composed in Old Avestan and attributed to Zarathushtra; they form the oldest and most revered part of the Avesta and are recited in the Yasna.

The Avestan word for truth, order and cosmic righteousness; it is a central religious concept and appears constantly in prayers and hymns.

The supreme god of Zoroastrianism, the wise lord who created the world and stands for truth and goodness against the destructive spirit.

The destructive spirit or adversary in Zoroastrian belief, the source of evil, falsehood and disorder, opposed to Ahura Mazda and asha.

The 'beneficent immortals', a group of divine beings or attributes of Ahura Mazda, each associated with a quality such as good mind or truth.

The prophet of Zoroastrianism, traditionally regarded as the author of the Gathas; his name is often rendered Zoroaster in Greek and European languages.

A Zoroastrian place of worship where a consecrated fire is kept burning and tended by priests; fire symbolises purity and the presence of the divine.

A later Avestan text concerned with purity laws, ritual rules and legends; it is recited in the Vidēvdād ceremony and is not part of the oldest Gathic layer.

The collection of sacred Zoroastrian texts in the Avestan language, including the Gathas, Yasna, Vendidad and other liturgical and legal works.