Nyaya and Vaisheshika
Scope
Nyāya and Vaiśeṣika are sister darśanas: Nyāya specializes in logic and epistemology; Vaiśeṣika in ontology and atomism. The exam tests pramāṇas, the Nyāya syllogism, hetvābhāsa, and Vaiśeṣika categories.
Core concepts
- Nyāya pramāṇas: pratyakṣa (perception), anumāna (inference), upamāna (comparison), śabda (testimony). Inference depends on vyāpti, the invariable relation between hetu and sādhya.
- Five-member inference: pratijñā (thesis), hetu (reason), udāharaṇa (example), upanaya (application), nigamana (conclusion).
- Vaiśeṣika padārthas: dravya, guṇa, karma, sāmānya, viśeṣa, samavāya, and abhāva. Paramāṇu is the indivisible atom; samavāya is inseparable relation, unlike saṃyoga, contact.
- Hetvābhāsa: fallacious reasons such as savyabhicāra (deviating), viruddha (contradictory), and satpratipakṣa (counterbalanced).
Worked example
Question: “Infer fire on the hill.” Reasoning: pratijñā-the hill has fire; hetu-because it has smoke; udāharaṇa-wherever smoke, there fire, as in a kitchen; upanaya-the hill has smoke; nigamana-therefore the hill has fire. The inference is sound only if vyāpti holds and no defeating condition blocks it.
Traps
Do not say Nyāya accepts only perception; do not confuse samavāya with physical contact; do not treat the five steps as five separate proofs. A valid form can still fail if the example is faulty.