SOF IEO key terms

A sentence that expresses one situation as depending on another, usually built from an if-clause and a main clause. The verb forms change according to whether the situation is real, unlikely, or impossible.

A real, possible future condition: if plus present simple in the if-clause, and will, can, or may plus base verb in the main clause. Example: If it rains, we will stay inside.

An imagined or unlikely present or future condition: if plus past simple in the if-clause, and would plus base verb in the main clause. Example: If I knew the answer, I would tell you.

An unreal past condition and its imagined result: if plus past perfect in the if-clause, and would have plus past participle in the main clause. Example: If she had studied, she would have passed.

A conditional that joins time frames, such as a past condition with a present result: If I had taken that job, I would be living abroad now. The two clauses use different tense patterns.

A helping verb such as can, must, should, or might that adds meaning like ability, obligation, permission, or possibility. It is followed by a base verb and does not take -s in the third person.

A modal followed by have and a past participle, used to comment on past events: must have left, could have won, should have called. Each combination carries a distinct meaning about certainty, regret, or lost possibility.

The meaning that something is required or necessary, usually expressed with must or have to. Must often signals the speaker's own strong view, while have to often signals an external rule.

The meaning that something is not allowed, expressed with must not or cannot. It is different from absence of obligation, which is expressed with do not have to or need not.

A recommendation, most often expressed with should or ought to. Weaker forms include had better for warning and could for a gentle suggestion.

Using modals to show how certain a conclusion is. Must shows strong certainty, may and might show possibility, and cannot shows strong certainty that something is untrue.

A verb combined with a particle such as up, off, or into, creating a new meaning: give up, turn down, run into. Some are separable and some are not, which affects word order with pronouns.

A phrasal verb whose object may sit between the verb and the particle: turn the offer down or turn down the offer. With a pronoun the object must go in the middle: turn it down.

A phrasal verb whose verb and particle cannot be split by the object: look after the child, never look the child after. The object always follows the whole unit.

A pairing of words that native users expect together, such as make a decision, heavy rain, or deeply concerned. Wrong partners sound unnatural even when the grammar is correct.

A fixed expression whose meaning cannot be worked out from its individual words, such as break the ice or under the weather. Idioms usually keep a fixed wording and word order.

The arrangement of words in a sentence, which in English usually follows subject, verb, object. It also covers the position of adverbs, adjectives, and question words.

Placing the auxiliary or verb before the subject for emphasis or grammar, as in Never have I seen such a crowd, or in questions. It often follows negative adverbials at the start of a sentence.

The usual sequence of adjectives before a noun: opinion, size, age, shape, colour, origin, material, purpose, as in a lovely small old round brown wooden box. Native users rarely break this order.

A clause that describes a noun, introduced by who, which, that, whose, or where. Defining clauses identify the noun, while non-defining clauses add extra information between commas.

Conveying what someone said without quoting directly, which usually shifts tenses, pronouns, and time words: She said she was leaving the next day.

The -ing form of a verb used as a noun, as in Swimming is healthy or I enjoy reading. Some verbs and prepositions are followed by a gerund rather than an infinitive.

The base form of a verb, with or without to, as in I want to leave or She made me wait. Certain verbs, adjectives, and purpose expressions require the to-infinitive.

The level of formality in language suited to a situation, ranging from casual speech to formal writing. Word choice, contractions, and phrasal verbs all signal register.

A conclusion drawn from evidence in a text rather than stated directly. Readers combine clues with general knowledge to work out what the writer implies.

Something accepted as true without being proved, often needed for an argument to work. Spotting an unstated assumption is a common step in evaluating reasoning.

A statement offered as a reason or evidence in an argument. Premises support the conclusion, and judging whether they are true and relevant is central to analysis.

The claim an argument tries to establish, supported by the premises. It may be stated at the start or end of a passage, or left for the reader to infer.

A set of reasons put forward to support a claim. In critical thinking the word is neutral: it means structured reasoning, not a quarrel.

The central point a passage is built to convey, to which most sentences contribute. It is broader than a detail and is often stated in a topic sentence.

A short restatement of the key points of a text in your own words, leaving out examples and minor detail. A good summary keeps the writer's emphasis and order of importance.

Restating a passage's meaning in different words while keeping the original sense. It shows comprehension and is used to check whether two statements say the same thing.

Deriving a necessary conclusion from given statements using rules such as if-then reasoning, elimination, or syllogism. The conclusion must follow, not merely seem plausible.

A form of reasoning with two premises and a conclusion, as in All birds lay eggs; a robin is a bird; therefore a robin lays eggs. Validity depends on form, not on whether the premises are true.

A common pattern of flawed reasoning, such as attacking a person instead of their argument, or assuming that because two things occur together one causes the other. Recognising fallacies sharpens evaluation.

The relationship in which one event brings about another. Care is needed to separate genuine causation from mere correlation or coincidence.

A series of numbers, shapes, or words that follow a rule. Solving such puzzles means identifying the rule and using it to predict the next item.

A comparison based on a shared relationship, often written as A is to B as C is to D. Solving analogies requires naming the link between the first pair and applying it to the second.

A problem-solving method that removes options shown to be impossible, narrowing the field until one answer remains. It is especially useful in multiple-choice reasoning tasks.