Tamil Nadu HSE Second Year Office Management and Secretaryship cheat sheet

Office management is the planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling of office work so that information is collected, processed, stored and supplied efficiently.

Primary functions: receiving, recording, arranging and communicating information. Secondary functions: personnel, stationery and equipment, furniture, stationery control and public relations.

The office is a place where clerical work is performed and information is processed; the modern office is an information centre, not merely a room of clerks.

Centralisation suits work requiring uniformity and heavy machines; decentralisation suits branches needing speed and local decision-making.

Line organisation gives direct vertical authority; line and staff adds specialists who advise but do not command.

Functional organisation (Taylor) gives each worker several specialist superiors; it violates unity of command and is rarely used whole.

Span of control is the number of subordinates directly supervised by one officer; the wider the span, the flatter the organisation.

Delegation transfers authority, not final responsibility; accountability for the delegated task remains with the delegating officer.

Office environment covers physical, social and psychological conditions: lighting, ventilation, temperature, noise, colour, cleanliness and human relations.

Illumination standards: general lighting about 300-500 lux; detailed reading and accounting work needs higher levels, roughly 500-750 lux.

Glare is direct or reflected light that strains the eye; correct by diffused fittings, matte surfaces and correct positioning of lamps.

Comfort zone for sedentary office work: temperature about 20-25 degrees Celsius with 40-60 per cent relative humidity.

Noise above roughly 85 decibels over long periods can damage hearing; constant low-level noise mainly reduces concentration and accuracy.

Colour affects mood and fatigue: light shades for ceilings and walls, brighter accents on machinery, avoiding harsh contrasts.

Ventilation must supply fresh air and remove stale air and heat; air-conditioned offices still need periodic fresh-air intake.

Good housekeeping, waste disposal and clean washrooms are part of the office environment and affect health and morale.

Layout is the arrangement of furniture, equipment and personnel within available floor space to maximise workflow efficiency.

Open-plan layout: large undivided hall, low partitions; advantages are supervision, economy and flexibility; drawbacks are noise and lack of privacy.

Cellular or closed layout: separate cabins; advantages are privacy and confidentiality; drawbacks are higher cost and poorer supervision.

Landscape layout: irregular arrangement of workstations with screens and plants; flexible and pleasant but needs careful planning.

Principles of layout: straight-line flow of work, minimum movement, adequate space per employee, supervision possible, and room for expansion.

Workstation ergonomics: chair height adjusted so feet rest flat, screen top at or just below eye level, forearms horizontal at the keyboard.

The work triangle principle places related desks and equipment close together to cut movement and handling time.

Aisles must stay clear for movement and fire escape; storage should be near the point of use but out of the main flow.

Communication process: sender, message, encoding, channel, receiver, decoding, feedback, and noise that distorts the message.

Formal channels follow the chain of command; informal channels (grapevine) are fast but carry rumour and cannot be relied on for decisions.

Barriers: semantic (jargon, ambiguity), psychological (prejudice, emotion), organisational (status, filtering) and physical (noise, distance).

Letters are classified as formal or business letters, demi-official letters, circular letters, enquiry and reply, order, complaint and adjustment.

Essential parts of a business letter: heading or letterhead, date, inside address, salutation, subject, body, complimentary close, signature and enclosures.

Memo is internal and brief, with To, From, Date, Subject, and no salutation; it records instructions and decisions within the organisation.

Notice announces a meeting or decision; circular is sent to many recipients at once; agenda lists items in order of business.

E-mail etiquette: clear subject line, one topic per message, reply within a reasonable time, and avoid all-caps which reads as shouting.

Records life cycle: creation, distribution, use, maintenance and disposal (destruction or transfer to archives).

Filing is the systematic arrangement of records so that any paper can be located quickly when needed.

Classification methods: alphabetical, numerical, chronological, geographical and subject; each suits a different retrieval need.

Alphabetical filing is simple and direct but uneven in distribution; numerical filing allows unlimited expansion and is more confidential.

Modern filing equipment: vertical file, horizontal file, visible file, lateral file and filing cabinets; loose-leaf binders suit small offices.

Centralised filing gives one control and saves space; departmental filing gives faster access but duplicates records.

Indexing is a guide to filed records; types include card index, visible index and strip index.

Retention schedule states how long each class of record is kept before destruction; statutory records follow legal retention periods.

Office machines are classified as duplicating, calculating, accounting, communication, recording and reprographic machines.

Computers and word processors replaced typewriters for document production; photocopiers and scanners handle reprography and digitisation.

Office automation combines computers, networks and software to perform routine clerical work with less manual effort.

Advantages of automation: speed, accuracy, reduced storage, better reporting. Limitations: capital cost, training need, breakdown risk, data security.

Data and information differ: data are raw facts, information is processed data useful for decisions.

A database stores related records; a spreadsheet is used for calculations and analysis of tabular data.

Backup means keeping a duplicate copy of data on a separate medium; it protects against loss from failure, fire or theft.

Ergonomic placement of machines: screens away from direct light, cables secured, printers in ventilated areas away from workstations.

The secretary is an officer who handles correspondence, records, meetings and confidential matters for a superior or an organisation.

Types: private secretary (to an individual), secretary of an association or club (honorary), and company secretary (statutory officer).

Qualities of a secretary: accuracy, discretion, punctuality, tact, good communication and knowledge of office procedures.

Duties before a meeting: issue notice, prepare agenda, arrange venue, send papers, confirm quorum.

Duties during a meeting: take notes, record attendance, assist the chair, read the minutes of the previous meeting.

Duties after a meeting: draft minutes, circulate them, follow up decisions and maintain the minute book.

The chair conducts the meeting and rules on points of order; the secretary records and serves the meeting.

Confidentiality is a core duty; information learned in the role is not disclosed without authority.

Types of company meetings: statutory meeting, annual general meeting, extraordinary general meeting, board meeting and class meeting.

Statutory meeting is held once in the life of a company, within six months of commencement of business; statutory report is sent to members.

Annual general meeting: first AGM within 18 months of incorporation, then once every year, with not more than 15 months between two AGMs.

Extraordinary general meeting is called to deal with urgent matters that cannot wait for the AGM.

Quorum is the minimum number of members required to transact business; a meeting without quorum is invalid.

Notice of a meeting must be given to all entitled members; the Companies Act requires at least 21 clear days' notice for general meetings, with shorter notice by consent of the required majority.

A ordinary resolution needs a simple majority; a special resolution needs a three-fourths majority of votes cast, with proper notice.

Minutes are the official record of proceedings; proxy is a member's authorised representative who may attend but usually cannot speak.

Contract essentials: offer, acceptance, lawful consideration, capacity, free consent, lawful object and intention to create legal relations.

A company is a separate legal person, has perpetual succession, limited liability, common seal (where applicable) and can sue and be sued.

Types of companies: private limited (restricted transfer, minimum two members), public limited (minimum seven members), one person company and section 8 (non-profit) company.

Memorandum of Association defines the company's charter and objects; Articles of Association contain internal rules and regulations.

Doctrine of ultra vires: acts beyond the objects clause of the memorandum are void and cannot be ratified by members.

Doctrine of indoor management protects outsiders who deal in good faith, as they are not expected to inspect internal procedures.

Directors are agents and trustees of the company; they owe duties of care, good faith and avoidance of conflict of interest.

Winding up is the process of ending a company's life, realising assets and distributing proceeds to creditors and members in order.

Common office hazards: slips and trips, falls, electrical faults, fire, poor ergonomics, stress and violence.

Fire safety: extinguishers for different classes, clear escape routes, fire drills, and no storage blocking exits.

Electrical safety: no damaged cables, no overloading sockets, earthing and periodic inspection.

First aid box must be stocked and accessible; a trained first-aider should be available in the workplace.

Ergonomic hazards: prolonged sitting, repetitive keyboard use, poor posture; prevent with adjustable chairs, breaks and correct desk height.

Occupational health includes ventilation, lighting, noise control and prevention of communicable disease spread.

Welfare facilities: drinking water, washrooms, rest rooms, canteen, first aid and, where required, crèche facilities.

Accident reporting: every accident should be recorded in an accident register with date, cause and action taken.

Employability skills: communication, teamwork, problem solving, self-management, learning, technology and initiative.

A resume states education, skills and experience; a cover letter explains why the candidate fits a specific job.

Interview preparation: research the employer, prepare examples of work, dress appropriately, arrive early and ask relevant questions.

Entrepreneurship is the process of identifying an opportunity, arranging resources and bearing risk to create a venture.

A business plan covers product, market, competition, operations, finance and risk; it guides the entrepreneur and attracts finance.

Sources of finance: own savings, family, bank loans, venture capital, government schemes and crowdfunding.

Small business forms: sole proprietorship, partnership, LLP, private limited company; choice depends on liability, capital and control.

Digital skills for employability: e-mail, spreadsheets, online forms, safe passwords and awareness of cyber fraud.

Office manager's functions: planning work, allocating duties, supervising staff, controlling quality and coordinating with other departments.

Work measurement and simplification reduce unnecessary steps; method study examines how work is done, work measurement how long it takes.

Office manual documents procedures and policies; it standardises work and helps train new staff.

Office stationery control: fix quantities, keep a stock register, reorder at minimum level, and check issues against requisitions.

Office costs are both direct (stationery, salaries) and indirect (rent, lighting); cost control targets waste and duplication.

Coordination is achieved through meetings, reports, schedules and clear written instructions.

A good office system is simple, economical, flexible and capable of producing accurate information on time.

A report presents facts and recommendations; a formal report has title, terms of reference, procedure, findings, conclusions and recommendations.

Minutes record decisions and discussion points; they are written in the past tense and third person, and are confirmed at the next meeting.

Notice boards, circulars and memos are internal written channels; letters, e-mail and telephone are external channels.

A good business letter is clear, concise, courteous, correct, complete and considerate (the seven Cs).

A complaint letter states the order details, the defect, the inconvenience caused and the remedy expected.

A quotation gives price, terms and delivery; an order must state quantity, specification, price and delivery date.

Listening is part of communication; feedback confirms that the message was received and understood as intended.

Downward communication carries instructions; upward carries reports and suggestions; horizontal carries coordination between peers.

Filing methods compared: alphabetical is simple but uneven; numerical allows expansion and cross-referencing; chronological suits correspondence by date.

A good filing system must be simple, economical, accessible, safe and capable of expansion.

Cross-referencing links a record filed under one heading to another relevant heading.

Follow-up or tickler file reminds staff of pending matters due on a date.

Microfilming and digital scanning reduce storage space and protect fragile originals.

Confidential files are kept under lock or restricted access; access should be logged.

Records should be reviewed periodically; obsolete records are destroyed under a documented schedule, not at random.

Archives preserve records of permanent value; current records stay in the office for daily use.

Order of business at a general meeting: notice and quorum check, chairman's address, reading and confirming minutes, reports, resolutions, vote of thanks.

A point of order is raised when meeting procedure is breached; the chairman rules on it immediately.

A motion is a proposal; it becomes a resolution when passed by the required majority.

An amendment alters a motion; it is voted on before the main motion.

A proxy form must be deposited with the company before the time fixed in the notice.

Adjournment postpones the meeting to a later date; the same quorum and notice rules generally apply to the resumed meeting.

The chairman has a casting vote in the case of a tie, where the articles provide for it.

Minutes must be entered in the minute book within the prescribed period and signed by the chairman of the meeting or the next meeting.

Offer plus unconditional acceptance creates an agreement; enforceability requires consideration and lawful object.

Consideration means something of value exchanged; it must not be past, illusory or unlawful.

Free consent is absent when consent is caused by coercion, undue influence, fraud, misrepresentation or mistake.

A minor's agreement is void; a person of unsound mind cannot contract.

A private company restricts the right to transfer shares and limits members; a public company can invite the public to subscribe.

The prospectus invites the public to subscribe for securities; misstatements in it attract liability.

Dividend is paid out of profits, not capital; declaration follows the articles and the board's recommendation.

Auditor of a company is appointed by members in general meeting and reports on the accounts.

Fire triangle: fuel, oxygen and heat; removing any one prevents or stops combustion.

Classes of fire: A (solid combustibles), B (flammable liquids), C (gases), D (metals) and electrical; the extinguisher must match the class.

Water conducts electricity and must not be used on live electrical fires; use carbon dioxide or dry powder.

Evacuation plan: alarm, designated routes, assembly point, roll call and designated wardens.

Display screen equipment rules: regular breaks, adjustable seating, adequate space and eye tests where required.

Workplace stress is a health hazard; manageable workload, clear roles and support reduce it.

Safety training and drills must be repeated periodically; new employees are trained before starting hazardous tasks.

Welfare includes clean drinking water, sanitation, lighting, ventilation and facilities for rest during work intervals.

A skill gap is the difference between skills required for a job and skills the candidate has; it is closed by training and practice.

SMART goals are specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound.

Team roles: leader, coordinator, implementer, checker and supporter; effective teams balance these roles.

Time management tools: priority matrix (urgent versus important), to-do lists and scheduling.

Market research identifies customer needs, competitors and pricing before a venture is launched.

Break-even point is the sales level at which total revenue equals total cost; below it the venture makes a loss.

Business risk is the possibility of loss; the entrepreneur bears it in expectation of profit.

Government support for small business includes loans, subsidies, training and single-window clearances.

Photocopier, scanner, printer and shredder are common reprographic and document-handling machines.

Shredding destroys confidential waste paper; it protects data security and privacy.

Accounting machines and software record transactions, prepare ledgers and generate financial statements.

Communication equipment includes telephone, intercom, fax (legacy), e-mail and video conferencing.

Computer hardware comprises input, processing, storage and output units; software directs the hardware.

Data security controls: passwords, access rights, antivirus software, encryption and regular backups.

Automation reduces repetitive work but requires maintenance, training and contingency plans for breakdown.

Office equipment should be selected on cost, capacity, durability, service support and suitability to the work.

The company secretary ensures compliance with company law and board procedures; appointment and qualifications are governed by the Companies Act.

The secretary prepares the agenda in consultation with the chairman and issues it with the notice.

Correspondence handling: receive, sort, record in inward register, route to the concerned officer, and dispatch outward mail with an outward register.

A good secretary maintains a diary and reminder system so that deadlines are not missed.

The secretary prepares the chairman's brief, attendance sheets, proxy register and voting papers.

Confidentiality, loyalty and impartiality are professional duties of the secretary.

The secretary signs the minutes as a witness of the proceedings, subject to the chairman's signature.

Statutory registers and returns are maintained and filed by the secretary within prescribed time limits.

Aisles should be at least wide enough for two persons to pass and never blocked by furniture or files.

Workstations should be arranged so that the worker faces away from glare and has adequate knee space.

Storage near point of use reduces walking; heavy items stored at waist height to avoid strain.

Noise control: place printers and copiers away from desks, use carpets and acoustic panels.

Ventilation and temperature control affect productivity; stale air causes drowsiness and errors.

Safety in layout: exits unobstructed, fire equipment visible, cables routed away from walkways.

Lighting should be uniform, with task lighting where fine work is done; avoid sharp shadows.

Flexible layout allows rearrangement as work changes; modular furniture supports this.

Office management is a service function; it supports production, sales and finance by supplying information.

Principles of organisation: unity of command, unity of direction, scalar chain, division of work and delegation.

Committee organisation shares decision-making; it improves participation but slows decisions and dilutes responsibility.

Informal organisation arises from social relationships and coexists with the formal structure.

Job description lists duties and responsibilities of a post; job specification lists the qualifications required.

Performance appraisal measures work against standards and identifies training needs.

Office supervision ensures work is done according to plan; it includes checking attendance, output and quality.

A sound organisation structure defines authority, responsibility and reporting relationships clearly.

Physical environment includes building, furniture, lighting, ventilation, temperature, noise and cleanliness.

Social environment includes relations with colleagues, superiors and subordinates; courtesy and cooperation improve output.

Psychological environment includes recognition, fair treatment, job security and opportunities for growth.

A clean, well-lit and quiet office reduces absenteeism and errors.

Colour schemes should provide contrast without glare; dark colours make rooms look small and gloomy.

Plants and natural light improve the look of the office but must not obstruct movement or cause allergies.

Temperature extremes lower concentration; draughts and stuffiness are common complaints to be corrected.

Regular inspection of the office environment identifies defects before they become hazards.

Communication is the exchange of information between a sender and a receiver through a chosen channel.

Types: verbal (oral and written) and non-verbal (gesture, posture, tone).

Oral communication is fast and gives immediate feedback but leaves no record; written communication is a record but slower.

Grapevine is informal communication; it spreads quickly and managers should listen to it without relying on it.

A circular letter is sent to many people with the same content; a notice is displayed or issued to inform.

A memo should state the purpose in the first line, give facts briefly and end with the action required.

E-mail and messaging are fast but can be misread; tone should be checked before sending.

Effective communication requires listening, clarity, appropriate channel and confirmation of understanding.

Records are classified before filing; classification groups similar records under a common heading.

Alphabetical filing uses guide cards and folders; names are arranged letter by letter or word by word.

Numerical filing assigns a number to each file; an index or register links the number to the name.

Chronological filing keeps records in date order; useful for correspondence and vouchers.

Subject filing groups papers by topic; useful where topics matter more than names.

Geographical filing groups records by region or branch; useful for sales and distribution.

A filing cabinet must be labelled and a charge-out card used when a file is removed.

Digital records need naming conventions, folders, access rights and regular backup.

A word processor produces, edits and formats text; a spreadsheet handles numbers and formulas.

E-mail software manages messages, attachments and folders; attachments should be scanned for viruses.

A printer's resolution is measured in dots per inch; higher resolution gives sharper output.

A scanner converts paper documents into digital images that can be stored or e-mailed.

A photocopier uses light and toner to reproduce documents; duplex copying saves paper.

Automation of records includes electronic document management systems with search and version control.

Regular servicing and a maintenance log extend the life of office machines.

Staff training is essential before new equipment is introduced to avoid errors and downtime.

The secretary acts as a link between the board, management and members.

Before a board meeting the secretary prepares the notice, agenda, notes and previous minutes.

During a board meeting the secretary records the proceedings and assists the chairman on procedure.

After the meeting the secretary drafts the minutes and communicates decisions to those concerned.

The secretary maintains statutory books, registers and the common seal (where applicable).

The secretary must be familiar with the company's articles and memorandum.

The secretary handles confidential correspondence personally and keeps it secure.

The secretary's role includes arranging travel, appointments and the chairman's schedule.

Communication skills include speaking clearly, listening actively, writing correctly and presenting confidently.

Teamwork requires cooperation, sharing information and respecting other members' roles.

Problem solving steps: identify the problem, gather information, list options, choose and implement, review the result.

Self-management includes punctuality, meeting deadlines, personal hygiene and professional behaviour.

Learning skills include asking questions, using manuals and keeping up with technology.

Entrepreneurial traits: initiative, risk-taking, perseverance, self-confidence and opportunity spotting.

A feasibility study tests whether a business idea is practical before investing money.

Customer service and record keeping are essential for small business survival.

An agreement without consideration is generally void, except in recognised cases such as natural love and affection.

A contract with a minor, or one made under coercion, is void or voidable as the law provides.

The memorandum contains name, registered office, objects, liability and capital clauses.

The articles are subordinate to the memorandum; a provision in the articles contrary to the memorandum is void.

A company acts through its board of directors; individual directors cannot bind the company unless authorised.

Share capital: authorised, issued, subscribed and paid-up capital are distinct terms.

A statutory meeting is held only by public companies limited by shares.

The auditor's report states whether the accounts show a true and fair view.

Safety is the prevention of accidents; health is freedom from illness; welfare covers facilities for comfort.

Accident causes: unsafe conditions (faulty equipment) and unsafe acts (carelessness).

Prevention: guarding machines, safe wiring, training, signage and housekeeping.

Fire extinguishers must be checked periodically and staff trained in their use.

First aid treatment should be given immediately; serious cases are referred to a doctor.

Personal protective equipment is required where hazards exist, even in offices such as workshops.

Stress and fatigue are health hazards; reasonable hours, breaks and support reduce them.

Safety committees and suggestion schemes help identify and remove hazards.

Lighting levels are measured in lux; insufficient light causes eye strain and errors.

Direct glare comes from a light source; reflected glare comes from shiny surfaces.

Noise is measured in decibels; continuous exposure to high levels harms hearing.

Ventilation removes carbon dioxide, odours and heat and supplies fresh air.

Temperature and humidity affect comfort; extremes lower efficiency.

Cleanliness includes dust control, waste bins and clean floors and washrooms.

Colour and decoration affect mood; light colours make rooms appear larger and brighter.

Good human relations in the office reduce conflict and improve cooperation.

Office automation reduces manual effort but increases dependence on power and maintenance.

Data entry errors are reduced by validation checks and double-checking.

A backup should be kept off-site or in a separate location to survive fire or theft.

Passwords should be strong and changed periodically; shared passwords defeat security.

Antivirus software and updates protect against malware that can destroy records.

Machine selection considers volume of work, cost, speed, durability and after-sales service.

A maintenance schedule prevents breakdowns and extends equipment life.

Training staff on new equipment reduces errors and improves productivity.

Workflow should move in a straight line from receipt to dispatch with minimum backtracking.

Space standards: each worker needs enough desk space, chair clearance and storage space.

Supervision is easier in open-plan layouts; privacy is better in cellular offices.

Landscape layout uses screens and plants to create informal work zones.

Ergonomic chair: adjustable height, back support and seat depth.

Screen position: at right angles to windows to avoid glare; top of screen at eye level.

Aisles and exits must be kept clear for safety and movement.

Layout should allow for future expansion and changes in work methods.

Filing equipment includes vertical, lateral, horizontal, visible and rotary files.

Loose-leaf files and binders are suitable for small offices and frequently changing records.

A card index provides a quick reference to files and can be arranged alphabetically or numerically.

A visible index shows the reference edge of cards for fast lookup.

Records should be protected from fire, damp, insects and unauthorised access.

Retention periods depend on legal requirements and the usefulness of the record.

Destruction of records should be authorised and recorded.

Archived records should be indexed so they can be retrieved when needed.

A meeting must be properly convened with valid notice, quorum and a competent chairman.

Notice must state the date, time, place and business to be transacted.

The agenda is a list of items to be discussed in order.

The chairman maintains order and ensures all items are covered.

Voting may be by show of hands or poll; a poll records votes by shares.

Resolutions are recorded in the minutes with the type (ordinary or special).

Minutes should be concise, accurate and free from personal opinion.

Follow-up action on decisions is the secretary's responsibility.

The secretary's duties include correspondence, record keeping, meeting arrangements and confidential work.

A private secretary works for one individual; a company secretary works for the company.

The secretary must be discreet, accurate, punctual and tactful.

Inward and outward mail registers record the receipt and dispatch of correspondence.

The secretary prepares the agenda and papers for meetings and circulates them in advance.

During meetings the secretary records attendance and proceedings.

After meetings the secretary drafts and circulates minutes and follows up decisions.

The secretary maintains statutory registers and ensures timely filings.

Employability skills are the personal and technical skills that make a person suitable for employment.

Communication, teamwork, problem solving, self-management, learning and technology are core skills.

A resume should be truthful, neat and tailored to the job.

An interview tests knowledge, communication and attitude.

Entrepreneurship creates jobs and wealth and requires risk-taking and initiative.

A business plan is essential for finance and for guiding the venture.

Market research reduces the risk of failure by testing demand.

Record keeping and customer service are essential for small business survival.

Office management coordinates people, equipment and procedures to process information.

Functions include planning, organising, staffing, directing, coordinating and controlling office work.

Centralisation gives uniformity and control; decentralisation gives speed and local responsiveness.

Line organisation gives direct authority; line and staff adds specialist advice.

Functional organisation gives multiple specialist superiors and weakens unity of command.

Span of control affects the number of levels in the organisation.

Delegation transfers authority but not final responsibility.

A sound organisation structure defines authority, responsibility and reporting relationships clearly.

Safety hazards include slips, trips, falls, electrical faults and fire.

Health hazards include poor ergonomics, stress and poor ventilation.

Welfare facilities include drinking water, washrooms, rest rooms and first aid.

Fire safety requires extinguishers, clear exits, drills and training.

Electrical safety requires inspection, earthing and no overloading.

Accidents should be recorded and investigated to prevent recurrence.

Ergonomics reduces strain through adjustable furniture and correct posture.

Safety committees and training help maintain a safe workplace.

A contract requires offer, acceptance, consideration, capacity, free consent and lawful object.

A company is a separate legal person with perpetual succession and limited liability.

Private companies restrict share transfer; public companies may invite public subscription.

The memorandum is the charter; the articles are internal rules.

Ultra vires acts are void and cannot be ratified.

The doctrine of indoor management protects outsiders dealing in good faith.

Directors owe duties of care, good faith and avoidance of conflict.

Winding up ends the company and distributes assets to creditors and members.

Communication requires a sender, message, channel, receiver and feedback.

Barriers include semantic, psychological, organisational and physical barriers.

Business letters should be clear, concise, courteous, correct, complete and considerate.

A memo is internal and brief; a circular is sent to many recipients.

A notice announces a meeting or decision; an agenda lists items in order.

E-mail etiquette includes a clear subject and one topic per message.

Reports present facts and recommendations.

Minutes record decisions and are confirmed at the next meeting.

Lighting is measured in lux; insufficient light causes eye strain.

Glare is direct or reflected light that strains the eye.

Noise is measured in decibels; high levels harm hearing.

Comfortable temperature is about 20-25 degrees Celsius.

Ventilation supplies fresh air and removes stale air.

Colour affects mood; light shades make rooms appear larger.

Cleanliness and housekeeping are part of the office environment.

Good human relations improve cooperation and morale.

Layout arranges furniture, equipment and personnel for efficient workflow.

Open-plan layout aids supervision but reduces privacy.

Cellular layout gives privacy but costs more and reduces supervision.

Landscape layout uses screens and plants for flexible work zones.

Workflow should move in a straight line with minimum backtracking.

Ergonomic seating and screen position reduce strain.

Aisles and exits must be kept clear for safety.

Layout should allow for future expansion.

Office machines include duplicating, calculating, accounting, communication and reprographic machines.

Computers and word processors replaced typewriters for document production.

Office automation uses computers and software to perform routine clerical work.

Data are raw facts; information is processed data useful for decisions.

Backups protect against loss from failure, fire or theft.

Shredding destroys confidential waste paper.

Data security controls include passwords, access rights and antivirus software.

Equipment should be selected on cost, capacity, durability and service support.

The secretary handles correspondence, records, meetings and confidential matters.

Types include private secretary, honorary secretary and company secretary.

Qualities include accuracy, discretion, punctuality and tact.

Before meetings the secretary issues notice, prepares agenda and confirms quorum.

During meetings the secretary records attendance and proceedings.

After meetings the secretary drafts and circulates minutes and follows up decisions.

Confidentiality is a core duty of the secretary.

The secretary maintains statutory registers and ensures timely filings.

Statutory meeting is held once in the life of a company within six months of commencement.

First AGM within 18 months of incorporation; then once a year with not more than 15 months between AGMs.

Extraordinary general meeting deals with urgent matters.

Quorum is the minimum number of members required to transact business.

Notice of at least 21 clear days is required for general meetings.

Ordinary resolution needs a simple majority; special resolution needs three-fourths majority.

Minutes are the official record of proceedings.

A proxy is a member's authorised representative.

Employability skills include communication, teamwork, problem solving and self-management.

A resume states education, skills and experience.

Interview preparation includes research, examples and punctuality.

Entrepreneurship involves identifying opportunities and bearing risk.

A business plan covers product, market, operations, finance and risk.

Sources of finance include savings, loans, venture capital and government schemes.

Break-even point is where revenue equals total cost.

Digital skills include e-mail, spreadsheets and cyber safety.

Office management plans, organises, staffs, directs and controls office work.

Primary functions are receiving, recording, arranging and communicating information.

Centralisation suits uniformity; decentralisation suits speed and local decisions.

Line organisation gives direct vertical authority.

Line and staff adds specialists who advise but do not command.

Span of control is the number of subordinates directly supervised.

Delegation transfers authority, not final responsibility.

A sound organisation structure defines authority and responsibility clearly.