UPMSP Intermediate Computer key terms

The main chip that fetches, decodes and executes program instructions, performing arithmetic, logic and control operations. It coordinates all other hardware units and is often called the brain of the computer.

The part of the processor that carries out arithmetic operations such as addition and subtraction and logical comparisons such as AND, OR and greater-than. It works on data supplied from registers under the control unit's direction.

The processor section that reads each instruction, interprets it and generates timing and control signals so that other units carry out the required steps in the correct sequence.

A very small, very fast storage location inside the processor used to hold the current instruction, operands or intermediate results during execution. Registers are far quicker to access than main memory.

Fast, directly addressable storage that the processor reads and writes during execution, comprising RAM and ROM. Its contents are volatile or fixed and its capacity is smaller than secondary storage.

Read/write semiconductor memory that holds programs and data while the computer runs. Its contents are lost when power is switched off, and it is described as volatile random-access storage.

Non-volatile memory whose contents are written during manufacture or by special equipment and normally cannot be changed by ordinary programs. It stores start-up instructions such as the bootstrap loader.

A small, high-speed memory placed between the processor and main memory that keeps recently or frequently used data. It reduces average access time because most requests are satisfied without going to slower RAM.

Non-volatile devices such as hard disks, solid-state drives and optical discs used to keep programs and files permanently. Access is slower than main memory but capacity and cost per unit are far better.

Hardware that converts data from the outside world into a form the computer can process, for example a keyboard, mouse, scanner or microphone. It supplies raw data to the system for storage or computation.

Hardware that presents processed results to the user in a human-readable or usable form, such as a monitor, printer, speaker or projector. It converts internal binary signals into text, images, sound or printed pages.

The repeated sequence of fetching an instruction from memory, decoding it, executing the required operation and storing the result. Also called the fetch-decode-execute cycle, it underlies every program's execution.

The start-up process in which firmware runs self-tests, locates the operating system on a storage device and loads it into memory so the machine becomes ready for use.

The smallest unit of digital data, representing a single binary digit that is either 0 or 1. Groups of bits encode numbers, characters, images and instructions inside a computer.

A group of eight bits treated as one unit. It commonly stores one character in ASCII and is the basic unit for measuring memory and file size, with larger units such as kilobyte and megabyte built from it.

A positional number system using only the digits 0 and 1, with each place value a power of two. Computers use it because electronic circuits can reliably represent two distinct voltage states.

The base-10 positional system people use daily, with digits 0 to 9 and place values that are powers of ten. Converting between it and binary is a routine examination skill.

A base-16 system using digits 0 to 9 and letters A to F. Because one hexadecimal digit maps exactly to four binary bits, it gives a short, readable way to write memory addresses and colour codes.

A character-encoding standard that assigns a 7-bit code to letters, digits, punctuation and control characters. It allows text to be stored and exchanged between different computers consistently.

A universal character-encoding standard that assigns a unique code point to characters of most of the world's writing systems, so text in many languages can be represented and exchanged without conflict.

A method of representing signed integers in binary in which the leftmost bit indicates sign and negative values are formed by inverting all bits and adding one. It makes subtraction work as addition.

The condition in which a calculated result needs more bits than the fixed storage width allows, so the value wraps around or is reported as an error. It can silently produce wrong answers if unchecked.

System software that manages hardware resources, schedules programs, provides file and device services and offers a user interface. It acts as an intermediary between application software and the machine.

A program in execution together with its current state, memory space and resources. The operating system creates, schedules, suspends and terminates processes so several tasks can share one processor.

The ability of an operating system to run several tasks apparently at the same time by switching the processor rapidly between them. Each task receives short time slices according to a scheduling policy.

The method an operating system uses to name, store, organise and retrieve files on a storage device, including directories, permissions and allocation of space. It determines how paths and file attributes work.

A container that groups files and other directories, giving a hierarchical structure to storage. Also called a folder, it lets users organise data and forms part of a file's path.

The written location of a file or directory within the file system, made of directory names separated by a delimiter. An absolute path starts from the root; a relative path starts from the current directory.

A finite, ordered set of unambiguous steps that solves a problem or performs a task and always terminates. Algorithms can be expressed as pseudocode, flowcharts or programs in any language.

A diagram that represents an algorithm using standard symbols such as ovals for start and end, parallelograms for input and output, rectangles for processing and diamonds for decisions, connected by arrows.

A structured, informal notation that describes program logic in plain words and control structures without the strict syntax of a real programming language. It helps plan code before writing it.

A control structure that repeats a block of statements while a condition holds or for a fixed number of iterations. It avoids duplicating code and is essential for processing collections of data.

A control structure that executes one block of code or another depending on whether a tested condition is true or false. It gives programs the ability to make decisions and branch.

A data type with exactly two possible values, true and false, used in conditions and logical expressions. Logical operators such as AND, OR and NOT combine Boolean values to form decision rules.

An organised collection of related data stored so that it can be efficiently retrieved, updated and shared. A database management system controls access, integrity and concurrent use of the stored data.

Database management system: software that creates, maintains and controls access to a database, enforcing structure, security and integrity rules while hiding low-level storage details from users.

A database structure made of rows and columns in which each row is one record and each column is one field or attribute. Tables hold the actual data in a relational database.

A column or combination of columns whose value uniquely identifies each row of a table and cannot be null. It prevents duplicate records and is used to link tables through foreign keys.

A column in one table whose values must match a primary key value in another table, creating a link between the two. It enforces referential integrity so related records stay consistent.

A single column of a database table that stores one attribute of the record, such as name or roll number. Each field has a defined data type and optional constraints.

Structured Query Language: the standard language for defining, querying and modifying relational databases. Statements such as SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE manipulate data, while CREATE and ALTER define structure.

A numeric label assigned to a device on a network so data can be routed to it. IPv4 addresses are 32-bit and usually written as four decimal numbers separated by dots.

An agreed set of rules governing how data is formatted, addressed, transmitted and acknowledged between devices. Common examples include TCP, IP, HTTP and SMTP, which together allow different systems to communicate.

Domain Name System: a distributed naming service that translates human-readable domain names into IP addresses. It lets users reach websites without remembering numeric addresses.

HyperText Transfer Protocol: the request-response protocol used by web browsers and servers to exchange web pages and other resources. HTTPS is its encrypted form, using TLS for confidentiality.

Uniform Resource Locator: the address that identifies a resource on the web, typically giving the protocol, domain name and path such as https://example.com/page. It tells the browser where and how to fetch content.

HyperText Markup Language: the markup language that defines the structure and content of web pages using elements such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links and images. Browsers interpret it to render pages.

Application software that requests web resources, interprets HTML and related code and displays the resulting page. It manages navigation, caching, bookmarks and security warnings for the user.

The integration of text, graphics, animation, audio and video in a single digital presentation or application. Multimedia systems need adequate storage, compression and processing power to deliver smooth playback.

Reducing the size of data by removing redundancy or discarding detail the user is unlikely to notice. Lossless methods restore the original exactly; lossy methods accept some quality loss for much smaller files.

Presenting another person's words, ideas, code or creative work as one's own without proper acknowledgement. It is an ethical and often legal violation in academic and professional settings.

A legal right that gives the creator of an original work control over its copying, distribution and adaptation for a limited period. Using protected material generally requires permission or a lawful exception.

Legally protected creations of the mind, including literary and artistic works, inventions, designs and trademarks. Laws grant limited exclusive rights so creators can benefit from their effort.

A malicious program that attaches itself to other files or programs and spreads when those are run, often damaging data or disrupting operation. It requires a host and some action by the user to propagate.

Any software written to harm, disrupt or gain unauthorised access to a computer system, including viruses, worms, trojans, spyware and ransomware. Protection relies on updates, caution and security tools.

A deception in which attackers send fake messages or build imitation websites to trick people into revealing passwords, card numbers or other sensitive data. Verifying the sender and address helps prevent it.

A secret string of characters used to prove identity before granting access to an account or system. Long, unique and unpredictable passwords, ideally combined with two-factor authentication, resist guessing and theft.

Hardware or software that filters network traffic against a set of rules, allowing approved connections and blocking suspicious ones. It forms a barrier between a trusted internal network and untrusted external networks.

A program that scans files, downloads and running processes for known malicious patterns or suspicious behaviour, then blocks, quarantines or removes threats. Regular signature updates are essential for effectiveness.