UPMSP Vocational Marketing & Salesmanship cheat sheet

Marketing is the whole set of activities that identify, anticipate and satisfy customer needs profitably; selling is only one part of it.

Core concepts: needs (felt deprivation), wants (shaped by culture and personality), demand (wants backed by buying power), and exchange as the central act of marketing.

Distinguish marketing (customer-centred, begins before production) from selling (product-centred, begins after production).

Scope covers goods, services, events, experiences, persons, places, properties, organisations, information and ideas - the ten 'marketable entities'.

Functions: gathering market information, product planning, standardisation and grading, packaging, branding, pricing, promotion, physical distribution, selling, after-sales service, and financing/risk bearing.

Importance to the firm: revenue generation, brand equity, customer retention and lower selling cost; to society: better standard of living, employment and wider choice.

Marketing mix = 4Ps (Product, Price, Place, Promotion); for services add People, Process, Physical Evidence (7Ps).

The marketing concept holds that profitability follows from customer satisfaction better than competitors deliver it; production, product and selling concepts are earlier orientations.

Micro environment: company itself, suppliers, marketing intermediaries, customers, competitors, publics. Macro environment: demographic, economic, natural, technological, political-legal, socio-cultural (PESTLE-style).

SWOT analysis classifies internal strengths/weaknesses against external opportunities/threats; environmental scanning feeds it.

Consumer buying process: need recognition → information search → evaluation of alternatives → purchase decision → post-purchase behaviour (cognitive dissonance may follow).

Buying roles in a family: initiator, influencer, decider, buyer, user; a person may hold several roles at once.

Factors shaping consumer behaviour: cultural (culture, subculture, social class), social (reference groups, family, roles and status), personal (age, occupation, income, lifestyle, personality) and psychological (motivation, perception, learning, beliefs and attitudes).

Perception is selective: selective attention, selective distortion and selective retention explain why advertising must be repeated.

Maslow's hierarchy (physiological, safety, social, esteem, self-actualisation) and Freudian motivation research are standard psychological explanations of buying motives.

Business (organisational) buying differs from consumer buying: fewer, larger buyers, derived demand, professional purchasing, multiple buying influences, and more formalised procedures.

STP sequence: Segmentation (divide the market) → Targeting (choose segments) → Positioning (occupy a distinct place in the customer's mind).

Segmentation bases: geographic, demographic, psychographic (lifestyle, personality, VALS), and behavioural (usage rate, benefits sought, loyalty, occasion).

A usable segment must be measurable, accessible, substantial, differentiable, actionable and stable.

Targeting strategies: undifferentiated (mass), differentiated (several segments), concentrated (niche), and micromarketing (local or individual).

Choose targets using segment size and growth, structural attractiveness (Porter's five forces) and company objectives and resources.

Positioning is defined by the value proposition; a positioning statement follows: 'For [target], [brand] is the [frame] that [benefit] because [reason to believe]'.

Positioning tools: points of parity (matching competitors) and points of difference (unique, deliverable, communicable).

Perceptual maps plot brands on two customer-relevant attributes to reveal gaps; repositioning is needed when a brand drifts or the market shifts.

Five product levels (Kotler): core benefit, basic product, expected product, augmented product, potential product.

Consumer goods classified by buying habits: convenience, shopping, speciality and unsought goods. Industrial goods: materials and parts, capital items, supplies and business services.

Product mix has width (number of lines), length (total items), depth (variants per item) and consistency (closeness of use).

Branding components: brand name, brand mark, trademark (legal protection), and trade name; brand equity is the extra value a brand name confers.

Brand strategies: manufacturer's brand vs. distributor (private) brand, family branding, individual branding, line extensions, brand extensions, multibrands, co-branding.

Packaging functions: protection, containment, identification, convenience, promotion and information (legal labelling). Labelling carries statutory information for consumers.

PLC stages: introduction, growth, maturity, decline. Introduction = high cost, low sales, skimming or penetration pricing; growth = rising sales and profits, competitors enter; maturity = peak sales, heavy promotion, price competition; decline = falling sales, cost cutting or divestment.

Strategies across PLC: product modification, market modification and marketing-mix modification; line stretching (up/down/both ways) and line filling extend the mix.

Pricing objectives: profit maximisation, target return on investment, market share/sales growth, market skimming, market penetration, status-quo/price stability, survival.

Cost-based methods: cost-plus (mark-up) pricing, break-even pricing, target-return pricing. Break-even quantity = Fixed Cost ÷ (Price − Variable Cost per unit).

Demand-based: perceived-value pricing, value pricing, demand-differential pricing; price elasticity of demand = % change in quantity ÷ % change in price.

Competition-based: going-rate pricing, sealed-bid pricing, competitive parity.

New-product strategies: skimming sets a high initial price to recover costs from innovators; penetration sets a low price to build share fast.

Price-adjustment strategies: geographical pricing, discriminatory pricing, promotional pricing, and psychological pricing (odd-even, prestige, bundle).

Discounts: trade (functional), quantity (cumulative and non-cumulative), cash discount (for prompt payment), seasonal, and allowance (trade-in).

Price is the only mix element that produces revenue; the others create cost. Price floors are set by cost, ceilings by demand and competition.

Channel level = number of intermediaries between producer and consumer; zero level is direct marketing, one level is producer → retailer → consumer.

Consumer channel options: direct, producer–retailer–consumer, producer–wholesaler–retailer–consumer, producer–agent–wholesaler–retailer–consumer.

Channel functions: information, promotion, contact, matching (sorting, grading, assembling), negotiation, physical distribution, financing and risk taking.

Intensity choices: intensive (convenience goods), selective (shopping goods), exclusive (speciality goods, with exclusive dealing).

Channel conflict may be vertical (within one channel, e.g. producer vs. dealer) or horizontal (between firms at the same level); vertical marketing systems (corporate, administered, contractual, franchise) control conflict.

Physical distribution (marketing logistics) components: order processing, warehousing, inventory control, materials handling and transportation.

Total logistics cost concept: minimise the sum of transport, warehousing, inventory-carrying and order-processing costs, not any one element.

Key trade-off: faster transport lowers inventory and stockout cost but raises freight cost; economic order quantity balances ordering and carrying costs.

Five promotion tools: advertising, sales promotion, personal selling, public relations/publicity, and direct marketing.

Advertising is paid, non-personal, sponsored communication; objectives are informative (introduction), persuasive (growth/competition) and reminder (maturity).

Advertising media: print, broadcast, outdoor, direct mail and digital; selection depends on reach, frequency, cost per thousand, selectivity and waste.

AIDA (Attention, Interest, Desire, Action) is the classic model of how promotion moves a prospect toward purchase.

Sales promotion tools: consumer-oriented (samples, coupons, premiums, contests, refunds, point-of-purchase displays) and trade-oriented (dealer contests, buying allowances, free goods, trade shows).

Publicity is unpaid, non-personal coverage in mass media; public relations is the broader planned effort to build goodwill.

Push strategy directs promotion at channel members; pull strategy directs it at final consumers to create demand that pulls the product through the channel.

Integrated marketing communication (IMC) coordinates all tools for a single consistent message; promotion budget methods are affordable, percentage-of-sales, competitive-parity and objective-and-task.

Salesmanship is the personal, persuasive, face-to-face effort to induce a prospect to buy a product that satisfies a need, using two-way communication.

Essential qualities: product knowledge, knowledge of customers and competitors, communication skill, empathy, self-confidence, honesty, initiative, perseverance, courtesy and physical stamina.

Selling process steps: prospecting and qualifying → pre-approach → approach → presentation and demonstration → handling objections → closing the sale → follow-up and after-sales service.

Prospecting sources: cold canvassing, referrals, directories, trade shows, telemarketing, internet leads and existing customers.

Objection handling methods: direct denial, indirect denial, 'yes-but', boomerang (turn the objection into a reason to buy), and postponing the objection.

Closing techniques: trial close, assumptive close, alternative-choice close, summary close, special-concession close and standing-room-only close.

AIDA and FAB (Feature–Advantage–Benefit) structure the presentation; benefits, not features, motivate purchase.

Follow-up reduces cognitive dissonance, builds repeat sales and generates referrals; the cost of retaining a customer is lower than acquiring a new one.

Retailing sells goods and services directly to final consumers; retail formats include departmental stores, supermarkets, chain stores, discount stores, specialty stores, malls, e-commerce and vending machines.

Itinerant retailers: hawkers, peddlers, market traders, street traders; fixed-shop retailers trade from a permanent location.

Wholesaling covers buying in bulk, breaking bulk, storage, grading, transport, financing and supplying market information to both producers and retailers.

Wholesaler types: merchant wholesalers (full-service and limited-service), agents and brokers (do not take title), and manufacturer's branches and sales offices.

Wholesalers are criticised for adding a link in the chain; their justification is lower total cost through breaking bulk, stockholding and market coverage.

Departmental stores offer many product lines under one roof with departmental accounting; chain stores are multiple outlets under one ownership with central buying.

Retail marketing decisions: target market, product assortment and service, price, promotion and place (location is a major retail success factor).

E-retailing changes the mix: no physical store, wider reach, lower overheads, but higher shipping and returns cost and weaker sensory evaluation.

Sales organisation structures: line (simple), line-and-staff, functional, product-based, territory-based, customer-based and matrix.

Steps in sales-force management: design strategy and structure → recruit and select → train → motivate and compensate → supervise → evaluate.

Company sales-force size formula: number of salespeople = (number of customers × call frequency) ÷ average calls a salesperson can make per period.

Territory design principles: equal workload/potential, compact shape, minimum travel, and clear boundaries; build from small units upward.

Compensation: straight salary (control, service work), straight commission (motivation, risk), or a salary-plus-incentive combination.

Motivation tools: quota, bonus, contest, recognition, promotion paths and non-financial rewards.

Sales quotas may be set on volume, value, profit, activity or expense; quotas should be attainable, fair and communicated in advance.

Performance evaluation compares actual against quota; use both quantitative records (call reports, orders) and qualitative observation (product knowledge, customer relations).

Consumer rights under the Consumer Protection Act, 2019 (India): safety, information, choice, being heard, redressal and consumer education.

The Act created the Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) and covers e-commerce; three-tier redressal: District, State and National Commissions, with pecuniary limits set by the Act.

A 'consumer' includes a person who buys goods or hires services for consideration, including online and offline transactions; 'unfair trade practice' and 'restrictive trade practice' are defined in the Act.

Product liability allows action against a manufacturer, product seller or service provider for defective goods or deficient services.

Consumer can file a complaint within two years of the cause of action; misleading advertisements can attract penalties and corrective advertising orders.

Legal framework affecting marketing: MRTP/Competition Act, Standards of Weights and Measures, Prevention of Food Adulteration/FSS Act, Drugs and Cosmetics Act, Trade Marks Act, Copyright Act, and Legal Metrology (packaging declarations).

Marketing ethics issues: deceptive advertising, bait-and-switch, price fixing, misleading claims, invasion of privacy, and exploitation of vulnerable consumers.

Codes of conduct: truthful claims, substantiation of advertising, fair pricing, disclosure of terms, and grievance redressal. Consumerism is the organised movement to strengthen consumer rights.

A marketing project report structure: title, objectives, methodology, data collection (primary/secondary), analysis, findings, conclusion and recommendations.

Primary data tools: questionnaire, interview schedule, observation and experiment; secondary sources: company records, census, trade journals, websites and reports.

Sampling note: convenience sampling is common in student projects but limits generalisation; state sample size and method explicitly.

Field-visit observation checklist: store format, product assortment, shelf placement, pricing and discount display, promotional material, footfall, service quality.

Case analysis format: situation, problem statement, alternatives, evaluation of alternatives, decision and implementation plan.

Segmentation and positioning can be analysed in a store visit by noting which brands are placed at eye level and which target segments the signage addresses.

A retailer's 4Ps audit: product mix breadth and depth, price points and markdowns, location and layout, and promotion (displays, offers, advertising).

Report findings must be evidence-based: quote counts, percentages or observed examples rather than opinions, and keep recommendations tied to a finding.

Diagnose a case by mapping facts onto theory: identify the PLC stage, the pricing strategy in use, the channel intensity and the promotion tools employed.

Use a decision matrix (weighted criteria vs. alternatives) when a case asks for a choice among options.

Common case question: 'Why did sales fall?' Check environment shifts, competitor action, product ageing, price moves and channel conflict in that order.

For a field visit to a supermarket, record five observations per element of the 4Ps to build a defensible analysis.

Distinguish symptoms (falling sales) from causes (poor positioning, stockouts, price gap) in the problem statement.

Quantify wherever possible: calculate break-even units, channel margin, discount impact on contribution, or sales per square foot.

Recommendations must be actionable and costed, with an owner and a time frame; avoid vague advice such as 'improve marketing'.

Link the case to Indian context where relevant: kirana vs. modern trade, e-commerce discounting, and local consumer protection remedies.

A questionnaire must avoid leading questions, double-barrelled items and jargon; pre-test on a small group before the main survey.

Keep a field diary: date, place, respondent or store, observation and interpretation recorded separately.

Calculate simple percentages and averages by hand for a small sample; show the working so the examiner can verify it.

Viva questions usually probe why a method was chosen, how data was validated and what the main limitation was - prepare a one-line answer for each.

Photographs and exhibits are supporting evidence only; the written report must be self-contained without them.

Compare at least two outlets or brands in a field study to make the analysis comparative, not descriptive.

Ethics in fieldwork: take consent, keep respondent identity confidential, and do not misrepresent the purpose of the survey.

Tie every conclusion to a specific data point; unsupported generalisations lose marks in practical assessment.

Match the selling approach to the situation: canned/scripted selling for routine orders, need-satisfaction selling for complex products.

In a role-play, the approach step should end with a question, not a pitch; questions uncover needs.

Handle price objections by restating value and total cost of ownership rather than by discounting immediately.

Record the call outcome: order, no order with reason, callback date. This feeds the sales report and forecast.

A sales presentation follows FAB: state the feature, explain the advantage, then the customer benefit.

Territory routing reduces travel time; plan calls by geographic cluster and by customer priority.

After-sales follow-up within a fixed interval (for example one week) reduces returns and complaints.

Ethical selling rule: never promise a delivery date or specification that operations cannot meet.

Channel margin calculation: retailer margin = (selling price − purchase price) ÷ selling price × 100.

Markup on cost = (selling price − cost) ÷ cost × 100; markup on selling price uses selling price as the denominator.

Stock turnover = cost of goods sold ÷ average inventory; a low turnover signals overstocking or weak assortment.

In a field visit, note shelf share as a proxy for market share in that outlet.

Identify the channel level in the store: a kirana buying from a wholesaler is a two-level channel from the producer's side.

Franchise outlets are contractual vertical marketing systems; company outlets are corporate systems.

Compare private-label and manufacturer-brand pricing to illustrate perceived-value pricing.

A store's layout (grid vs. free-flow) is a merchandising decision that affects dwell time and impulse purchase.

For a defective-product case, identify the forum by pecuniary jurisdiction, the relief sought (replacement, refund, compensation) and the limitation period of two years.

Misleading advertisement analysis: check whether the claim is factually false, whether it is substantiated, and whether it misleads a reasonable consumer.

Deficiency in service requires proof of fault, imperfection or shortcoming in quality; mere dissatisfaction is not enough.

Unfair trade practices include false representation of quality, false claims of sponsorship, and bait advertising.

Ethical test for a marketing decision: is it legal, is it truthful, and would the consumer agree if fully informed?

Restrictive trade practices manipulate price or supply conditions; competition law addresses anti-competitive agreements and abuse of dominance.

Packaging declarations required by legal metrology include net quantity, MRP, manufacturer details and consumer care contact.

A case answer should name the right, the remedy and the authority - not just describe the grievance.

If a firm has 600 customers, calls on each four times a year, and a salesperson can make 800 calls a year, required salespeople = (600 × 4) ÷ 800 = 3.

Salesperson's contribution = sales − cost of goods sold − direct selling cost; evaluate territories on contribution, not sales alone.

Quota attainment = actual sales ÷ quota × 100; a territory below 100% needs diagnosis, not automatic penalty.

Recruitment sources: internal promotion, employment exchanges, advertisements, campus placement and referrals.

Training content: product knowledge, company policy, selling skills, territory and reporting.

Span of control in sales: a first-line sales supervisor typically handles a limited number of salespeople so coaching remains possible.

Sales forecasting methods: judgemental (jury of executive opinion, sales-force composite) and quantitative (moving average, trend projection).

Sales contest design must avoid encouraging overselling or neglect of existing customers.

Contribution per unit = price − variable cost; break-even units = fixed cost ÷ contribution per unit.

If fixed cost is ₹50,000, price ₹100 and variable cost ₹60, break-even is 1,250 units.

Product line depth counts variants (sizes, flavours) within one line; length counts total items across all lines.

Line stretching down-market risks diluting brand image; up-market stretching requires proof of quality.

A brand name should be easy to pronounce, distinctive, legally available and transferable across markets.

In the maturity stage, profit per unit falls while total profit peaks; promotion shifts from awareness to persuasion and reminder.

Skimming works when demand is inelastic, the product is novel, and the price-quality signal matters.

Packaging cost is a variable cost and must be included in the unit cost before setting price.

Cost per thousand (CPM) = (cost of advertisement ÷ audience size in thousands); use it to compare media.

Reach is the number of different people exposed; frequency is how many times; gross rating points = reach × frequency.

Sales promotion should be time-bound and have a defined objective; continuous discounting trains customers to wait for offers.

Advertising effectiveness is measured by pre-testing (copy tests) and post-testing (recall, recognition, sales results).

Personal selling has high cost per contact but high conversion; advertising has low cost per contact but low conversion per exposure.

Publicity credibility is higher than advertising because it is not paid for by the marketer.

AIDA maps to media choice: awareness via mass media, desire via demonstration, action via sales promotion or personal selling.

Deceptive claims and bait advertising are both legal and ethical failures, not merely creative choices.

A PESTLE scan of a case identifies external forces; match each to an opportunity or threat in SWOT.

Reference groups affect conspicuous products more than private necessities; opinion leaders accelerate diffusion.

Post-purchase dissonance rises with price, irreversibility and number of rejected alternatives; follow-up calls reduce it.

Perceived risk types: functional, physical, financial, social, psychological and time; guarantees reduce functional and financial risk.

In organisational buying, the buying centre roles are users, influencers, deciders, buyers and gatekeepers.

Derived demand means industrial demand depends on consumer demand for final goods.

Cultural factors are the deepest influence on consumer behaviour and are the hardest for marketers to change.

Learning theory implies that reinforcement (satisfaction) strengthens repeat purchase; dissatisfaction extinguishes it.