Learning: Theories, Factors and Transfer
Learning questions test whether you can name a theory, attribute it to the right psychologist, and choose the classroom application - not whether you can describe learning vaguely.
Theories
- Thorndike (connectionism, trial and error): laws of readiness, exercise and effect; subsidiary laws include multiple response and set.
- Pavlov (classical conditioning): a neutral stimulus paired with an unconditioned stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus; includes extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalisation and discrimination.
- Skinner (operant conditioning): behaviour is shaped by consequences - reinforcement, punishment, shaping, and schedules that are ratio or interval, fixed or variable.
- Kohler (insight): sudden restructuring of the perceptual field, shown in the chimpanzee Sultan experiments.
- Bandura (social learning): modelling through attention, retention, reproduction and motivation.
Factors
Learner factors: maturation, readiness, motivation, attention, intelligence, health. Task factors: length, difficulty, meaningfulness. Method factors: whole versus part, spaced versus massed, recitation, feedback. Environment factors: physical conditions, teacher behaviour, class climate.
Transfer
Positive, negative and zero transfer, explained by identical elements (Thorndike and Woodworth), generalisation (Judd) and transposition (Gestalt).
Worked example
Pupils who know arithmetic find early algebra easy - positive transfer through identical elements such as operations and symbols. But Bengali word order pulls pupils into wrong English structures - negative transfer. Remedy: teach the points of difference explicitly and give contrasting practice.
Traps
Swapping Pavlov and Skinner; quoting the law of exercise as "practice makes perfect" without readiness and effect; confusing positive reinforcement with praise only; writing "transfer means learning helps" without naming the type.