WB HS Political Science cheat sheet

Political science is conventionally dated as an academic discipline from 1880 (Columbia's School of Political Science); 'political science' as a term predates it in the 19th century.

Traditional approaches: philosophical/normative (what ought to be), historical, institutional/legal, and comparative-descriptive.

Behavioural revolution (1950s-60s, Easton, Dahl, Almond): emphasis on observable behaviour, empirical theory, quantification, and value-neutrality.

Post-behaviouralism (Easton's 1969 'credo of relevance') reasserted concern with social problems and action over pure method.

Modern approaches: systems theory (Easton: inputs, outputs, feedback), structural-functionalism (Almond), rational choice, and new institutionalism.

Scope includes political theory, comparative politics, public administration, international relations, and public policy.

Politics is distinguished from 'the political': the former concerns authoritative allocation of values (Easton), the latter the sphere of collective decision-making.

Key debates: normative vs empirical, qualitative vs quantitative, state-centric vs society-centric analysis.

State = population + territory + government + sovereignty; the four elements are conventionally attributed to the Montevideo Convention (1933) formulation.

Sovereignty: supreme and independent authority; internal (supremacy over all associations within) and external (independence from other states).

Bodin and Hobbes grounded sovereignty in the monarch; Rousseau relocated it to the general will of the people (popular sovereignty).

Legal sovereignty (Austin: command of a determinate sovereign) is distinguished from political sovereignty (the electorate or public opinion).

Pluralists (Laski, MacIver, Cole) deny that the state is the sole or absolute association; monists insist on a single supreme authority.

Nation is a community of people sharing identity (culture, language, history); state is a legal-political organisation - hence 'nation-state' when they coincide.

Nationalism: civic (Renan's 'daily plebiscite') vs ethnic (descent-based); Anderson's 'imagined communities' treats the nation as socially constructed.

Theories of state: liberal, Marxist (instrumental/structural), elitist, pluralist, and feminist.

Constitution = the fundamental rules constituting and limiting government; written vs unwritten, rigid vs flexible (Bryce's classification).

Constitutionalism = government limited by law and accountable to the governed; a constitution without limits is not constitutionalism.

Rule of law (Dicey): no punishment without legal basis, equality before the law, and rights derived from ordinary courts (as opposed to a separate administrative law).

Conventions are unwritten rules binding political practice (e.g., ministerial responsibility); they are enforced politically, not judicially.

A rigid constitution requires a special amending procedure; a flexible one can be amended by ordinary legislation.

Separation of powers (Montesquieu) allocates legislative, executive and judicial functions to distinct organs with checks and balances.

A constitution may be supreme over ordinary legislation (judicial review) or subordinate to the legislature (parliamentary sovereignty).

Types of amendment: formal (textual revision), informal (interpretation and convention), and unconstitutional (coup or revolution).

Legislature: makes law, controls finance and executive, represents the electorate; unicameral vs bicameral; functions include representation, deliberation and oversight.

Executive: political (cabinet/head of government) vs permanent (civil service); head of state vs head of government.

Judiciary: adjudicates disputes, interprets law, and may exercise judicial review; independence secured by tenure, salary protection and appointment safeguards.

Parliamentary system: executive drawn from and responsible to the legislature; collective responsibility; dissolution of the lower house possible.

Presidential system: separation of executive and legislature; fixed terms; no collective responsibility; the president is both head of state and government.

Unitary system: single centre of authority; sub-national units exist at the centre's discretion (e.g., the UK).

Federal system: division of powers between centre and units entrenched in a written constitution, with a supreme court umpiring disputes (e.g., the US, India).

Confederation: a union of sovereign states with a weak central authority; the Articles of Confederation (1781-89) is the classic example.

Democracy: government by the people; direct (referendum, initiative, recall) vs representative (elected legislature).

Liberal democracy combines majority rule with constitutional limits and minority rights; procedural (Schumpeter) vs substantive (Dahl's polyarchy) conceptions.

Dahl's polyarchy conditions include elected officials, free and fair elections, freedom of expression, associational autonomy and inclusive citizenship.

First-past-the-post (plurality): single-member districts, simple majority; tends to produce two-party systems (Duverger's law) and disproportional outcomes.

Proportional representation (list or STV): seats reflect vote share; encourages multi-party systems and coalition government.

Mixed systems (MMP, parallel): combine FPTP constituency seats with proportional top-up lists.

Universal adult franchise in India dates from 1950; the voting age was lowered from 21 to 18 by the 61st Amendment (1988).

The secret ballot, independent election machinery and one person-one vote are core conditions of free elections.

Political party: an organised group seeking to win and exercise governmental power through elections; pressure group: seeks to influence policy without contesting power directly.

Functions of parties: aggregation of interests, recruitment of leaders, formulation of programmes, mobilisation of voters, and linkage between state and society.

Party systems: one-party, two-party, and multi-party; Duverger links plurality elections to two-partyism and PR to multipartyism.

Pressure groups: sectional (trade unions, business associations) vs promotional/cause groups (environmental, human rights).

Methods of pressure groups: lobbying, electioneering, publicity, strikes and civil disobedience; insider vs outsider strategies.

India's party system is described as a 'one dominant party' system (1952-77) that evolved into a multi-party system with coalition politics.

Parties must register with the Election Commission; recognition as a state or national party depends on vote-share and seat thresholds.

Anti-defection law (10th Schedule, 52nd Amendment 1985) disqualifies legislators who voluntarily leave their party or defy a whip.

Rights are claims recognised and enforced by the state; natural rights (life, liberty) vs legal/civil rights; negative rights (freedom from) vs positive rights (entitlements to).

Liberty: absence of arbitrary restraint (negative, Berlin's 'liberty of non-interference') vs capacity for self-realisation (positive liberty).

Mill's harm principle: interference with liberty is justified only to prevent harm to others.

Equality: formal (equal treatment before the law) vs substantive (equal opportunity, affirmative action); equality of opportunity vs equality of outcome.

Justice: distributive (Rawls' difference principle - inequalities justified only if they benefit the least advantaged), retributive, and commutative.

Rawls' veil of ignorance and original position generate principles of justice chosen impartially.

Political obligation: the moral duty to obey the state; justifications include consent (social contract), fair play, gratitude, and natural duty of justice.

Civil disobedience (Thoreau, Gandhi, Rawls) is non-violent, public and conscientious breach of law aimed at changing unjust policy.

Adopted by the Constituent Assembly on 26 November 1949, came into force 26 January 1950; originally 395 Articles, 22 Parts and 8 Schedules.

Features: written and largely rigid constitution, parliamentary government, federal structure with a strong centre, judicial review, single citizenship, and universal adult franchise.

Fundamental Rights (Part III, Articles 12-35): equality (14-18), freedom (19-22), against exploitation (23-24), religion (25-28), cultural and educational (29-30), and constitutional remedies (32).

Article 32 (right to constitutional remedies) was called the 'heart and soul' of the Constitution by Dr Ambedkar; writs include habeas corpus, mandamus, certiorari, prohibition and quo warranto.

Fundamental Duties (Part IVA, Article 51A) were added by the 42nd Amendment (1976) on the recommendation of the Swaran Singh Committee.

Directive Principles (Part IV, Articles 36-51) are non-justiciable; Article 39A (legal aid), 40 (panchayats), 44 (uniform civil code) and 48A (environment) are examples.

Federal features: division of powers (Union, State and Concurrent Lists, Seventh Schedule), bicameralism, independent judiciary; unitary features: single citizenship, emergency provisions, Governor appointed by the President.

Amendments under Article 368; the Kesavananda Bharati (1973) basic structure doctrine limits amendment power, and the 42nd Amendment (1976) was the most sweeping revision.

President: head of state, elected indirectly by an electoral college (Article 54); executive power exercised on the advice of the Council of Ministers (Article 74).

Prime Minister and Council of Ministers: collectively responsible to the Lok Sabha (Article 75); the PM is appointed by the President and other ministers on the PM's advice.

Parliament: President + Rajya Sabha + Lok Sabha; Rajya Sabha has a maximum of 250 members, Lok Sabha 552; money bills can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha (Article 110).

Supreme Court: composition and jurisdiction under Articles 124-147; original jurisdiction in centre-state disputes (Article 131); appellate and advisory jurisdiction (Article 143).

Governor: appointed by the President (Article 155), acts as the state's constitutional head; Chief Minister heads the state executive (Article 164).

State legislature: unicameral or bicameral; the Legislative Assembly is directly elected, the Legislative Council partly elected and partly nominated.

Election Commission (Article 324) supervises elections; Comptroller and Auditor General (Article 148) audits government accounts; Finance Commission (Article 280) recommends devolution of taxes.

Emergency provisions (Articles 352, 356, 360): national, state (President's rule) and financial emergency.

Legislative relations: Union, State and Concurrent Lists (Seventh Schedule); residuary powers vest in Parliament (Article 248); Article 249 allows Parliament to legislate on a state subject in the national interest.

Administrative relations: Articles 256-263; the Governor acts as the centre's agent; All India Services are common to the Union and states.

Financial relations: Article 268-281; the Finance Commission recommends sharing of taxes; Article 275 grants-in-aid; Article 282 discretionary grants.

The Sarkaria Commission (1983) and the Punchhi Commission (2007) reviewed centre-state relations and recommended greater state autonomy and consultation.

73rd Amendment (1992) gave constitutional status to panchayats: three tiers, five-year terms, reservation for SC/ST and one-third for women, State Election Commission and State Finance Commission.

74th Amendment (1992) gave constitutional status to urban local bodies (municipalities and nagar panchayats) with ward committees and district planning committees.

Decentralisation transfers functions, funds and functionaries ('3Fs') to local bodies; the Eleventh and Twelfth Schedules list 29 and 18 subjects respectively.

Gandhi's vision of 'village republics' and the Balwantrai Mehta Committee (1957) are landmarks in Indian decentralisation.

Key concepts: power, national interest, balance of power, collective security, deterrence, interdependence and globalisation.

Realism (Morgenthau): states pursue power and interest in an anarchic system; idealism/liberalism emphasises international law, institutions and cooperation.

Levels of analysis: individual, state, and international system (Waltz's three images).

India's foreign policy principles: non-alignment, Panchsheel (1954, five principles of peaceful coexistence), anti-colonialism and support for the UN.

Non-alignment (Nehru, Bandung 1955, NAM Belgrade 1961) meant independence from bloc politics, not neutrality or isolation.

Article 51 of the Indian Constitution directs the state to promote international peace and security and to settle disputes by arbitration.

India's nuclear doctrine after the 1998 tests: credible minimum deterrence, no first use, and civilian control.

Institutions: UN Security Council (five permanent members with veto), WTO, IMF, World Bank, SAARC, BRICS, and the G-20 (India hosted in 2023).