Democracy, Representation and Electoral Systems
Democracy
Distinguish direct (referendum, assembly) from representative democracy, and procedural/minimalist (competitive elections) from substantive (equality, participation, rights) accounts. Key ideas: popular sovereignty, majority rule with minority rights, accountability, participation, deliberation. Know the conditions for a working democracy: rule of law, free press, civil society, tolerance of opposition.
Representation
Theories: mandate/delegate (representative as instructed agent), trustee (independent judgement), descriptive (mirroring society), and substantive (acting for interests). Also the microcosm and principal-agent views.
Electoral systems
- First-past-the-post / plurality: simple, single-member, tends to manufacture majorities, weakens small parties, strong constituency link.
- Proportional representation (list, or single transferable vote): seats track vote shares, encourages multipartyism, may fragment.
- Mixed systems (e.g. mixed-member proportional).
- Two-round and alternative vote: require majorities.
Key trade-offs: representation vs stability, accountability vs proportionality, constituency service vs party balance. Also know franchise expansion, malapportionment, gerrymandering, and electoral thresholds.
Traps
Do not say PR always produces coalitions or that FPTP always yields two parties - these are tendencies, not laws. Do not confuse proportionality (vote-seat match) with turnout. Do not equate 'one person, one vote' with 'one vote, one value' across unequal constituencies.
Rule of thumb
Ask: does the system reward concentration (plurality) or mirror vote shares (PR)? That single question predicts most consequences.
Worked example: A party with 40% of votes winning 55% of seats under FPTP illustrates manufactured majority; the same vote share under PR would yield roughly 40% of seats.