JCAA CPL Theory Exam cheat sheet

ICAO Annex 2 (Rules of the Air) applies over the high seas and, unless a State files differences, over all Contracting States; national AIP differences must be checked before flight.

Controlled airspace classes: A - IFR only, all aircraft separated; B - IFR and VFR, all separated; C - IFR separated from all, VFR separated from IFR and given traffic info about other VFR; D - IFR separated from IFR, traffic info to all; E - IFR separated from IFR, VFR receives traffic info where practicable; F and G uncontrolled.

VMC minima (ICAO, below 10 000 ft AMSL, non-mountainous): flight visibility 5 km, 1500 m horizontally and 1000 ft vertically from cloud; at and above 10 000 ft: 8 km visibility, 1500 m horizontally, 1000 ft vertically.

Semi-circular rule (IFR, magnetic track): 000–179° → odd flight levels; 180–359° → even flight levels; quadrantal rule (VFR above 3000 ft AGL): 000–089° odd thousands +500 ft, 090–179° odd thousands, 180–269° even thousands +500 ft, 270–359° even thousands.

Right-of-way: converging aircraft of the same category - the one on the right has right-of-way; head-on - both turn right; overtaking - the overtaken aircraft has right-of-way and the overtaker passes to the right; landing aircraft has right-of-way over aircraft on the ground.

Emergency: MAYDAY (distress, spoken three times) on 121.5 MHz; PAN PAN (urgency) repeated three times; frequency change to 121.5 after an emergency if able, and squawk 7700 (emergency), 7600 (radio failure), 7500 (unlawful interference).

Altimeter setting: QNH gives altitude above mean sea level, QFE gives height above the aerodrome reference point, QNE (standard 1013.25 hPa) is used at and above the transition level; the transition layer lies between transition altitude and transition level.

Aerodrome traffic circuit: join downwind at circuit height on the side published in the AIP; the standard circuit is left-hand unless right-hand is published; radio calls at downwind, base, final and after landing.

Documents to be carried on international flights: certificate of registration, certificate of airworthiness, crew licences, journey log book, operations manual where required, and the aircraft radio station licence.

Four-stroke cycle: induction, compression, combustion (power), exhaust; the crankshaft makes two revolutions per cycle, so one power stroke per cylinder every two revolutions.

Detonation is uncontrolled explosive combustion after normal ignition, producing high cylinder pressure and temperature; pre-ignition is ignition before the spark. Both are countered with correct mixture, lower power, cooler cylinder head temperature and the specified fuel grade.

Mixture: best power is roughly 50–100 °F rich of peak EGT; best economy is lean of peak; leaning is required above approximately 3000 ft density altitude to compensate for reduced air density.

Constant-speed propeller: the governor controls oil pressure to the propeller hub to hold selected RPM; loss of oil pressure drives the blades to coarse pitch (or to fine pitch on some types - know the specific aircraft).

Carburettor icing is most likely at ambient temperatures between about −10 °C and +20 °C with high relative humidity; carburettor heat must be applied fully and the RPM drop noted before take-off.

Electrical system: the battery supplies power for starting; the alternator/generator carries the load in flight; the ammeter shows charge or discharge; the master switch isolates the battery and alternator circuits.

Pitot-static system: the pitot tube feeds the airspeed indicator only; static pressure feeds the altimeter, airspeed indicator and vertical speed indicator; a blocked static port causes the ASI to read high in climb and low in descent.

Load factor: in a level turn, n = 1/cos(bank angle); a 60° bank gives n = 2; the stall speed increases by the square root of the load factor (Vs × √n).

Fuel system: the selector must be on a tank with adequate fuel for take-off and climb; the primer, mixture control and fuel pump are checked during the pre-take-off run-up; water in fuel is drained at the lowest sampling points.

Density altitude = pressure altitude + 120 × (OAT − ISA temperature); it determines take-off and climb performance and is higher than pressure altitude on a hot day.

Take-off and landing distances from the AFM/POH must be corrected for pressure altitude, temperature, weight, wind and runway slope; a 1 % upslope increases take-off distance by roughly 10 %.

Headwind and tailwind correction: a 10 % headwind reduces take-off ground roll by about 19 % (1 − (0.9)²); a 10 % tailwind increases it by about 21 % ((1.1)² − 1).

Mass and balance: the centre of gravity must lie within the forward and aft limits; forward CG increases stability and landing distance but reduces performance; aft CG reduces longitudinal stability.

Fuel planning: trip fuel + taxi fuel + contingency + alternate fuel + final reserve + additional fuel; the final reserve for VFR is normally 30 minutes at holding speed (45 minutes for IFR in some States).

Climb gradient (%) = (height gained / horizontal distance) × 100; a required 3.3 % obstacle gradient equals about 200 ft per nautical mile.

Cruise planning: true airspeed increases about 2 % per 1000 ft for a constant IAS; specific range is maximised where (TAS/fuel flow) is greatest.

Crosswind component = wind speed × sin(angle between wind and runway); headwind component = wind speed × cos(angle); the crosswind limit is published in the AFM.

Weight and balance: moment = weight × arm; total moment divided by total weight gives the CG position; empty weight and empty-weight CG must be taken from the current weighing report.

Hypoxia types: hypoxic (reduced oxygen partial pressure with altitude), hypaemic (reduced oxygen-carrying capacity, e.g. anaemia, CO), stagnant (poor circulation), histotoxic (cell poisoning, e.g. alcohol).

Time of useful consciousness at 25 000 ft is about 3–5 minutes; at 35 000 ft about 30–60 seconds; at 40 000 ft about 15–20 seconds.

Hyperventilation produces dizziness, tingling and visual disturbance; treatment is controlled breathing at a slower rate, and the condition is distinguished from hypoxia by the absence of cyanosis and improvement with reduced rate.

Spatial disorientation: the somatogravic illusion is a false sensation of pitch caused by linear acceleration; the leans arise from a sudden roll; the oculogyral illusion follows angular acceleration.

Night vision is mediated by rods, which are more sensitive to blue-green light and are blind to red; dark adaptation takes about 30 minutes; scanning at night uses off-centre viewing.

Cabin decompression: oxygen masks on, establish communication, descend to 10 000 ft or the minimum safe altitude, and land as soon as practicable.

Alcohol: ICAO guidance is no alcohol within 8 hours of flight and blood alcohol below 0.04 %; effects persist after the blood level falls.

Stress and fatigue: fatigue degrades vigilance and reaction time; controlled rest on the flight deck is regulated by the operator; circadian low points are around 03:00–05:00 and 15:00–17:00 local.

Carbon monoxide poisoning: symptoms include headache, nausea and a cherry-red skin colour; it binds haemoglobin about 200–250 times more strongly than oxygen.

ISA: sea-level temperature 15 °C, pressure 1013.25 hPa, lapse rate 1.98 °C per 1000 ft (about 2 °C); tropopause at about 36 090 ft where the temperature is −56.5 °C.

Standard pressure lapse: 1 hPa per 27 ft near sea level (about 30 ft per hPa in the lower atmosphere); the altimeter over-reads when flying from high to low pressure.

Cloud families: high (cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus), middle (altostratus, altocumulus), low (stratus, stratocumulus, nimbostratus) and vertical development (cumulus, cumulonimbus).

Stability: stable air gives layered cloud, steady precipitation, smooth air and poor visibility; unstable air gives cumuliform cloud, showers, turbulence and good visibility between showers.

Fronts: a cold front moves at about 25–30 kt with a steep slope (1:50) and narrow band of heavy showers; a warm front moves at about 10–15 kt with a shallow slope (1:150) and wide band of continuous rain.

Icing: clear ice forms in large supercooled droplets at about 0 °C to −10 °C; rime ice forms in small droplets at about −10 °C to −20 °C; freezing rain implies severe icing.

Thunderstorm life cycle: cumulus stage (updrafts only), mature stage (updrafts and downdrafts, lightning, hail, gust front), dissipating stage (downdrafts only); avoid cells by at least 20 nm.

Wind: a surface wind veers with altitude in the northern hemisphere due to friction; the wind at 2000 ft is roughly 20–30° further right and 20–40 % stronger than the surface wind.

QNH and QFE: QNH is the pressure reduced to sea level; QFE is the pressure at the aerodrome; the difference is about 1 hPa per 27 ft of aerodrome elevation.

Great circle is the shortest distance between two points on a sphere; a rhumb line crosses all meridians at a constant angle and is a straight line on a Mercator chart.

1 minute of latitude equals 1 nautical mile; 1 minute of longitude equals 1 nm × cos(latitude).

Magnetic variation: easterly variation is subtracted from true to give magnetic; westerly variation is added; deviation is the error of the compass caused by the aircraft's magnetic field.

Compass turning error: in the northern hemisphere the compass under-reads on a turn through north and over-reads on a turn through south; acceleration error causes an apparent turn to the north in the northern hemisphere.

Triangle of velocities: true heading + wind = true track; TAS and wind vector give ground speed and drift; track = heading + drift; wind velocity = track made good − heading.

1 in 60 rule: a 1 nm lateral error over 60 nm equals 1° of track error; a 10° error over 60 nm gives 10 nm off track.

Time and distance: distance = groundspeed × time; fuel required = fuel flow × time; the ETA must be updated after each position fix.

GNSS: RAIM (receiver autonomous integrity monitoring) detects faulty satellite signals; the required number of satellites for RAIM-based fault detection is 5 (6 for fault detection and exclusion).

Position lines: a fix requires at least two position lines; a VOR radial and a DME distance give a fix; a bearing and a range from the same station give a fix.

Pre-flight: check NOTAMs, weather, AIP supplements, aircraft documents, mass and balance, fuel and performance; complete the walk-around against the checklist.

Emergency briefings cover engine failure after take-off, forced landing, ditching, fire and decompression; the passenger briefing must include exits, life jackets and oxygen where applicable.

Wake turbulence: generated by wingtip vortices; strongest when heavy, clean and slow; avoid by at least 5 nm behind a heavy aircraft on approach and by taking off before the preceding aircraft's rotation point.

Runway incursion prevention: read back all hold-short and take-off clearances, use standard phraseology, and never cross a runway without an explicit clearance.

Bird strike: highest risk below 3000 ft AGL and near aerodromes; report all strikes to ATC and the aerodrome operator.

Fire in flight: engine fire - close the fuel and oil valves, switch off ignition, use the extinguisher, and land as soon as possible; cabin fire - use the extinguisher and descend to a breathable altitude.

Emergency descent: oxygen masks on, transponder 7700, MAYDAY call, descend at VMO/MMO or the published emergency descent speed, and level off at 10 000 ft or the MSA.

Ditching: approach into wind and parallel to the swell, with the lowest possible speed and a nose-up attitude; life jackets are inflated only after exiting the aircraft.

De-icing and anti-icing: holdover time depends on the fluid type and the precipitation; the pre-take-off contamination check must be performed within the holdover time.

Lift = ½ × ρ × V² × S × CL; lift increases with the square of speed and with air density; CL increases with angle of attack up to the critical angle.

Stall occurs at the critical angle of attack (about 15–18° for most light aircraft), independent of speed, weight and attitude; the stall speed increases with weight, load factor and altitude (TAS).

Induced drag decreases with speed (proportional to 1/V²); parasite drag increases with speed (proportional to V²); total drag is minimum at the speed where induced and parasite drag are equal.

Stability: positive static stability means the aircraft returns to equilibrium; longitudinal stability is provided by the horizontal stabiliser; a forward CG increases longitudinal stability.

Load factor in a level turn: n = 1/cos(bank angle); at 60° bank n = 2, at 75° bank n ≈ 3.86; the stall speed increases by √n.

Angle of attack increases when speed decreases in level flight; the aircraft stalls at the same angle of attack regardless of weight, but at a higher speed when heavier.

Bernoulli and Newton: lift is explained by the pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces and by the downward deflection of the airflow (downwash).

Adverse yaw: aileron drag causes the aircraft to yaw away from the direction of roll; coordinated rudder is applied to counteract it.

Manoeuvring speed (VA) is the maximum speed at which full control deflection may be applied without exceeding the design load factor; it decreases with weight.

VHF frequencies: 118.000–136.975 MHz, 25 kHz or 8.33 kHz channel spacing; 121.5 MHz is the emergency frequency; 123.45 MHz is the air-to-air frequency.

Standard phraseology: read back clearances, runway and hold-short instructions, altimeter settings and frequency changes; use the aircraft call sign at the start of each transmission.

Distress and urgency: MAYDAY for distress, PAN PAN for urgency, spoken three times; SEELONCE MAYDAY and SEELONCE DISTRESS impose radio silence.

Emergency frequency: 121.5 MHz; if radio failure, squawk 7600 and follow the published lost-communication procedures; light signals apply (steady green - cleared to land, flashing red - aerodrome unsafe).

Radio failure in controlled airspace: continue VFR, land at the nearest suitable aerodrome, and report arrival to ATC; IFR follows the published lost-communication procedure.

Transponder codes: 7700 emergency, 7600 radio failure, 7500 unlawful interference; Mode C gives pressure altitude; the squawk is set on the transponder panel.

Readability scale: 1 unreadable, 2 readable now and then, 3 readable but with difficulty, 4 readable, 5 perfectly readable.

Position reporting: aircraft identification, position, time, altitude/flight level, next position and ETA; the report is made at compulsory reporting points.

Phonetic alphabet and numbers: Alfa, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliett, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu.

VOR: 108.0–117.95 MHz; the CDI shows the selected radial; TO/FROM indicates whether the aircraft is flying to or from the station; a radial is a magnetic bearing from the station.

DME: frequency paired with VOR or ILS; displays slant range in nautical miles; accuracy is about ±0.5 nm or 3 % of range; DME is line-of-sight, so range increases with altitude.

NDB/ADF: 190–1750 kHz; the ADF needle points to the station relative to the aircraft; the relative bearing plus heading gives the magnetic bearing to the station; night effect and coastal refraction cause errors.

ILS: localiser (108.1–111.95 MHz, 40 channels) gives lateral guidance; glide path (329.15–335 MHz) gives vertical guidance, normally 3°; marker beacons at the outer, middle and inner positions.

ILS categories: CAT I decision height 200 ft and RVR 550 m; CAT II 100 ft and 300 m; CAT III A 50 ft and 200 m; CAT III B below 50 ft and 50–200 m; CAT III C no decision height.

GNSS: GPS, GLONASS, Galileo and BeiDou; RAIM detects faulty signals; SBAS (e.g. EGNOS, WAAS) improves accuracy and integrity; the minimum number of satellites for a 3D fix is 4.

Radar: primary radar uses reflected pulses and gives range and bearing; secondary surveillance radar (SSR) uses the transponder and gives identity and altitude.

RNAV and RNP: RNAV allows navigation on any desired path; RNP requires on-board performance monitoring and alerting; the RNP value (e.g. RNP 0.3) is the lateral accuracy in nautical miles.

Distance measuring: 1 nm = 1.852 km; VOR/DME fixes use a radial and a distance; a bearing and distance from one station give a fix; two DME distances give a fix.