KCAA CPL Theory cheat sheet

ICAO Annex 2 (Rules of the Air) applies over the high seas and, unless states file differences, over participating territories; national AIP takes precedence in Kenya.

VMC minima at and above 3 050 m (10 000 ft) AMSL: 8 km flight visibility, 1 500 m horizontal and 300 m (1 000 ft) vertical distance from cloud.

Below 3 050 m AMSL in Class C–G: 5 km flight visibility, 1 500 m horizontal and 300 m vertical cloud separation; Class F/G at/below 900 m AMSL or 300 m AGL may reduce visibility to 1 500 m.

VFR flight is not permitted in Class A airspace; in Class B, C, D and E a VFR clearance is required before entry (Class E only for IFR/VFR separation rules of the state).

Cruising level semicircular rule (track 000–179° magnetic): odd thousands + 500 ft for IFR, odd thousands + 500 ft for VFR above 900 m; track 180–359°: even thousands + 500 ft.

Clearance readback is mandatory for: route/level/heading clearances, runway-in-use, hold-short, SSR codes, altimeter settings and frequency changes.

Aircraft must be operated so that the pilot can see and avoid; right-of-way: balloon > glider > airship > aeroplane towing > powered aircraft; head-on both turn right, converging give way to the aircraft on the right.

Emergency: MAYDAY (distress) on 121.5 MHz, PAN PAN (urgency); intercepting aircraft rocks wings and flashes navigation lights - respond by rocking wings, and if instructed to land, comply.

Aerodrome traffic circuit: join downwind at circuit height, all turns to the left unless published right-hand; landing aircraft has priority over taxiing aircraft.

Reciprocating engine four-stroke order: induction, compression, ignition (power), exhaust; two revolutions of crankshaft per cycle, one power stroke per cylinder per two revolutions.

Detonation = explosive, uncontrolled burning of the whole charge (caused by over-lean, over-boost, high CHT); pre-ignition = charge ignited before the spark, usually by a hot spot such as a glowing plug or carbon deposit.

Mixture: excessively lean raises EGT and CHT and can burn valves; excessively rich cools the engine but fouls plugs and wastes fuel. Best power mixture ≈ 100–150 °F rich of peak EGT.

Magneto check: with engine warm, select each magneto in turn; maximum permissible drop typically 150 rpm and maximum differential 50 rpm; engine must run smoothly on both.

Electrical: battery supplies DC for start and standby; alternator/generator charges through a voltage regulator; ammeter shows charge/discharge, loadmeter shows alternator output.

Hydraulic system: pressure maintained by an engine-driven pump with an accumulator for surge damping and emergency actuation; a pressure relief valve protects against overpressure.

Pitot-static: pitot tube feeds the airspeed indicator only; static port feeds ASI, altimeter and VSI. Blocked pitot with open drain = ASI reads zero; blocked static = ASI reads high in climb, low in descent.

Emergency equipment: ELT transmits on 121.5 MHz (and 406 MHz for COSPAS-SARSAT); fire extinguishers must be checked for serviceability and weight/date; life jackets and rafts per route over water.

Ice protection: carburettor heat melts induction ice but causes a rich mixture and slight power loss; pitot heat and propeller de-ice are anti-ice/De-ice systems, not for use on the ground except for checks.

Density altitude = pressure altitude + 120 × (OAT − ISA temp at that level); high density altitude degrades take-off, climb and landing performance.

Take-off distance required = ground roll + 15% for dry runway, or + 30% for wet/contaminated; landing distance required = landing distance × 1.67 (dry) or × 1.92 (wet).

Climb gradient (%) = (height gained / horizontal distance) × 100; ROC (ft/min) = gradient × groundspeed (kt) × 101.3 / 60.

Fuel planning: trip fuel + contingency (5% of trip or 3% of trip + 5 min holding) + alternate fuel + final reserve (30 min at holding speed) + taxi fuel.

Weight and balance: moment = weight × arm; CG = total moment / total weight; adding weight aft of CG moves CG aft, forward of CG moves it forward.

Mass and balance limits: MTOM, MLM, MZFM (zero fuel mass), and MRW (ramp) - MZFM + fuel = mass at take-off.

Specific range (nm per kg) = TAS / fuel flow (kg/h); best endurance occurs at minimum fuel flow, best range at maximum TAS/fuel flow.

Crosswind component = wind speed × sin(angle between wind and runway); headwind component = wind speed × cos(angle).

Runway slope: 1% upslope increases take-off ground roll by about 10%; 1% downslope reduces it by about 10%.

Hypoxia: symptoms include euphoria, tingling, impaired judgement and cyanosis; time of useful consciousness at 25 000 ft ≈ 3–5 min, at 35 000 ft ≈ 30–60 s.

Hyperventilation produces dizziness, tingling and muscle spasm; treat by controlled breathing or, if in doubt, use 100% oxygen.

Spatial disorientation: somatogravic illusion (false climb on acceleration), somatogyral (false turn after prolonged turn), and the leans (false bank after a slow roll).

Vision: foveal (cone) vision for detail and colour in daylight; rod/peripheral vision for night and motion detection; dark adaptation takes 30–40 min.

Crew resource management: assertiveness, situational awareness, leadership, communication, decision-making; fatigue and stress degrade all of these.

Stress: moderate arousal improves performance (Yerkes-Dodson); excessive stress narrows attention and increases error rate.

Decompression sickness: nitrogen bubbles form on rapid altitude loss; treat with 100% oxygen, descent, and seek hyperbaric treatment.

Carbon monoxide poisoning: headache, dizziness, cherry-red lips; suspect with cabin heat on and treat with 100% oxygen and descent.

Alcohol: minimum 8 hours bottle-to-throttle and blood alcohol below 0.02% (Kenya); effects persist with hangover and fatigue.

ISA: sea level temperature 15 °C, pressure 1013.25 hPa, lapse rate 1.98 °C per 1 000 ft (6.5 °C/km) up to 11 km.

QNH = pressure reduced to sea level; QFE = pressure at the aerodrome; QNE = 1013.25 hPa used at/above transition altitude.

Pressure altitude = indicated altitude + 30 ft × (1013 − QNH in hPa); QNH change of 1 hPa ≈ 30 ft.

Cloud base (ft) = (temperature − dew point) × 400 (or × 125 in metres); a small spread means a low cloud base.

Stability: stable air gives stratiform cloud, steady precipitation and smooth air; unstable air gives cumuliform cloud, showers, turbulence and good visibility between showers.

Wind: veers with height in the northern hemisphere (backing in the southern); surface friction reduces wind speed and backs direction by about 30°.

Fronts: cold front - steep slope, narrow band, heavy showers, rapid wind veer; warm front - shallow slope, wide cloud band (cirrus → stratus), steady rain.

Thunderstorm life cycle: cumulus (updraughts), mature (updraughts and downdraughts, hail, lightning, gust front), dissipating (downdraughts dominate).

Icing: most likely at 0 to −20 °C in supercooled water; clear ice in large drops (cumuliform), rime in small drops (stratiform).

Great circle = shortest distance between two points; rhumb line = constant track, longer than great circle except on the equator or a meridian.

1 minute of latitude = 1 nautical mile; 1 minute of longitude = 1 nm × cos(latitude).

Conversion: 1 nm = 1.852 km = 1.15 statute miles; 1 kt = 1 nm/h.

Track = direction of the intended path over the ground; heading = direction the aircraft nose points; drift = track − heading.

Wind triangle: groundspeed = TAS ± headwind component; crosswind component = wind speed × sin(angle); use the 1-in-60 rule for small corrections.

1-in-60 rule: a 1° error over 60 nm gives 1 nm offset; a 1° track error over 60 nm requires a 1° correction.

Time to station (min) = (distance flown × 60) / (distance flown − distance remaining) when using two bearings on the same track.

Magnetic variation east is subtracted from true to get magnetic (True Virgins Make Dull Company: True + Variation = Magnetic, Magnetic + Deviation = Compass).

Altimeter: flying from high to low pressure without resetting shows a higher altitude than actual - the aircraft is lower than indicated.

Pre-flight: check NOTAMs, weather, mass and balance, fuel, performance, and emergency briefings; verify documents (C of A, C of R, insurance, licences, journey log).

Take-off briefing includes: rejected take-off decision, engine failure actions before/after V1, emergency turn, and initial climb-out.

V1 = decision speed; VR = rotation; V2 = take-off safety speed; VREF = landing reference speed (usually 1.3 × VS0).

Wake turbulence: generated by wingtip vortices; heaviest when heavy, clean and slow; avoid by flying above the preceding aircraft's path and landing beyond its touchdown point.

Wind shear on approach: go-around if unable to maintain glidepath/airspeed; on take-off, reject if insufficient runway remains.

Emergency descent: 100% oxygen, seat belts on, descend at VMO/MMO or published speed, turn off course as required, squawk 7700.

Fire: shut off fuel, mixture and electrics to the affected engine; use extinguisher; land as soon as possible.

Ditching: broadcast MAYDAY, land into wind and parallel to swell, evacuate upwind, use life rafts.

Runway incursion prevention: read back hold-short instructions, confirm clearance before crossing, and use standard phraseology.

Lift L = ½ ρ V² S CL; induced drag Di = L² / (½ ρ V² S π AR e); parasite drag Dp = ½ ρ V² S CD0.

Total drag = parasite + induced; minimum total drag occurs at the speed where parasite drag = induced drag (best glide speed).

Stall occurs at the critical angle of attack, independent of speed, weight and bank; a heavier aircraft stalls at a higher speed.

Load factor n = 1 / cos(bank); stall speed increases with √n - at 60° bank VS increases by 1.41.

Bernoulli/venturi: increased velocity gives decreased static pressure; the wing produces lift by accelerating air downward (Newton) and by pressure difference.

Stability: dihedral gives lateral stability; sweepback gives directional stability; the horizontal tail gives longitudinal stability; CG forward of the neutral point gives positive static stability.

Control: elevator controls pitch, ailerons roll, rudder yaw; adverse yaw is countered by rudder into the turn.

Flaps increase lift and drag; leading-edge devices (slats) delay the stall by increasing the critical angle of attack.

Mach: critical Mach number is the free-stream Mach at which airflow somewhere on the aircraft first reaches M = 1; shock waves cause Mach buffet.

Phonetic alphabet: Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Foxtrot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliett, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform, Victor, Whiskey, X-ray, Yankee, Zulu.

Numbers: 3 = tree, 5 = fife, 9 = niner; transmit altitudes as "FL" above transition altitude (FL 350) and feet below.

Readback required: clearances, runway, SSR code, altimeter setting, frequency, hold-short instructions.

Distress: MAYDAY ×3, callsign, nature, position, level, intentions; urgency: PAN PAN ×3.

Emergency frequency 121.5 MHz; ground-to-air 121.5; air-to-air 123.45 (unofficial).

VFR position report: callsign, position, time, level, next position and ETA.

IFR clearance: "(callsign) cleared to (destination) via (route), climb to (level), squawk (code)" - read back route, level and code.

Loss of communication: squawk 7600, continue per published procedures, and try to re-establish on 121.5 or the last assigned frequency.

VOR: 108.0–117.95 MHz, line-of-sight; radial = magnetic bearing from the station; CDI centred with TO/FROM flag indicates the selected radial.

NDB/ADF: 190–1750 kHz, ground wave and sky wave; ADF needle points to the station relative to the aircraft nose; relative bearing + heading = magnetic bearing to the station.

DME: UHF 960–1215 MHz, slant range; indicated distance increases with altitude above the station; accuracy ≈ ±0.5 nm or 3% of range.

ILS: localizer 108–112 MHz (VHF) gives lateral guidance; glideslope UHF 329–335 MHz gives vertical guidance; typical glideslope 3°.

Marker beacons: outer ≈ 4–7 nm (400 Hz), middle ≈ 3 500 ft (1 300 Hz), inner ≈ 200 ft (3 000 Hz).

GPS: 24-satellite constellation, 6 orbital planes; position from pseudo-range; RAIM detects and isolates faulty satellites.

Transponder: Mode A = identity, Mode C = altitude; squawk 7700 emergency, 7600 radio failure, 7500 hijack.

Radar: primary returns from skin paint; secondary uses transponder reply; SSR uses interrogation on 1030 MHz and reply on 1090 MHz.