Korean History Proficiency Test - Advanced cheat sheet

Gojoseon chronology: Mumun pottery (c. 1500–300 BCE) marks the Bronze Age; the Liaoning-style bronze dagger culture is associated with Gojoseon's sphere; Wiman (Wei Man) seized the throne c. 194 BCE; Han China destroyed Gojoseon in 108 BCE and established the Four Commanderies (Lelang, Lintun, Xuantu, Zhenfan).

Three Kingdoms dates: Goguryeo traditionally founded 37 BCE (Jumong, capital Jolbon), Baekje 18 BCE (Onjo, Wiryeseong), Silla 57 BCE (Bak Hyeokgeose, Gyeongju); Goguryeo moved its capital to Gungnae (Hwando area) in 3 CE and to Pyongyang in 427 under Jangsu.

Key Goguryeo rulers: Gwanggaeto the Great (391–413) expanded into Manchuria and helped Silla against Wa; Jangsu (413–491) moved the capital to Pyongyang and erected the Gwanggaeto Stele in 414; Goguryeo was defeated by the Silla–Tang alliance in 668.

Baekje: Geunchogo (r. 346–375) strengthened royal power, adopted Chinese-style institutions, and expanded into the Han River basin; Seong (r. 523–554) moved the capital to Sabi (Buyeo) in 538 and was killed at the battle of Gwansanseong in 554; Baekje fell to the Silla–Tang alliance in 660.

Silla: Jijeung took the title wang (king) in 503; Beopheung adopted Buddhism officially in 527 (Martyrdom of Ichadon); Jinheung (540–576) conquered the Han River basin (553) and erected the Bukhansan and Changnyeong steles; Silla defeated Goguryeo with Tang in 668 and expelled Tang forces by 676.

Unified Silla administration: the Nine Provinces (9 ju) and Five Capital Districts (5 sogyeong) system, the village-ranking system (golpum) retained as status marker, and the Hwarang corps as a youth elite institution; Jang Bogo controlled maritime trade from Cheonghaejin in the 9th century.

Balhae (698–926): founded by Dae Joyeong, a former Goguryeo general, after the Goguryeo revival movement; called itself successor to Goguryeo; adopted a five-capital system modeled on Tang; destroyed by the Khitan in 926.

Gaya: a confederation of polities in the Nakdong River basin (Geumgwan Gaya, Daegaya); iron production and sea trade were central; absorbed by Silla progressively, with Daegaya conquered in 562.

Buddhist and cultural monuments: Bulguksa and Seokguram (8th century, Unified Silla); the Tripitaka Koreana woodblocks were first carved in the 11th century and recarved in the 13th century; the Silla monk Wonhyo wrote commentaries influential across East Asia.

Founding and capitals: Wang Geon (Taejo) founded Goryeo in 918 and unified the Later Three Kingdoms by 936; the capital was Gaegyeong (modern Kaesong); the Ten Injunctions (Hunyo sipjo) set out policy guidance for successors.

Institutions: the Three Departments and Six Ministries (3省 6部) structure, the Privy Council (Jaechusang), and the provincial system of 5 provinces (do) and 4 border districts (gye); the gwageo civil service examination was introduced in 958 under Gwangjong.

Military rule: the military coup of 1170 (Jungbang) ended civilian dominance; Choe Chung-heon and his descendants ruled through the Military Directorate (Gyobyeolgam) from 1196 to 1258; the Sambyeolcho rebellion (1270–1273) resisted Mongol rule.

Mongol rule: after invasions from 1231, Goryeo became a son-in-law state (buma-guk) of the Yuan; kings took Mongol princesses as wives; the Darugachi (Daruqachi) and the Jeongdong Haengseong (East Expedition Command) interfered in internal affairs.

Late Goryeo reforms: Gongmin (r. 1351–1374) purged pro-Yuan factions, recovered northern territories, and attacked the Red Turbans; the Jeonmin (slave) and land reforms were pursued; Sin Don's land reform (1388) attempted to redistribute land.

Goryeo culture: celadon (cheongja) with inlaid decoration (sanggam) reached its peak in the 12th–13th centuries; the Tripitaka Koreana was carved in the 13th century at Haeinsa; metal movable type (Jikji, 1377) was printed at Heungdeoksa.

Buddhism: state-sponsored Buddhism; the Nine Mountain Schools (Gusan Seonmun) of Seon Buddhism; Uicheon (1055–1101) founded the Cheontae school; Jinul (1158–1210) founded the Jogye Order and promoted ganhwa Seon.

Social structure: a hereditary aristocracy (yangban) dominated; the hyangni (local clerks) and commoners (yangin) and slaves (nobi) formed lower strata; the gwageo and the golpum-style status distinctions persisted.

Key dates: Goryeo founded 918; unification 936; gwageo 958; military coup 1170; Mongol invasions 1231–1259; Jikji printed 1377; Goryeo fell to the Joseon dynasty in 1392.

Founding: Yi Seong-gye (Taejo) founded Joseon in 1392 and moved the capital to Hanyang (Seoul) in 1394; the state ideology was Neo-Confucianism (seongnihak), and the Gyeongguk Daejeon (Complete Code) was completed in 1485.

Early kings: Taejong (r. 1400–1418) strengthened central power and abolished private armies; Sejong (r. 1418–1450) created Hangul (Hunminjeongeum, 1443, promulgated 1446) and promoted science and culture; Sejo (r. 1455–1468) usurped the throne and compiled the Grand Code.

Literati purges (sahwa): four major purges in 1498, 1504, 1519, and 1545 targeted sarim scholars; the sarim faction eventually gained dominance over the hungu faction.

Factional politics: the Eastern (Dongin) and Western (Seoin) factions emerged in 1575; the Eastern faction split into Southern (Namin) and Northern (Bukin) factions; the Western faction split into Old (Noron) and Young (Soron) factions; factional strife persisted into the 18th century.

Imjin War (1592–1598): Hideyoshi's invasions; Admiral Yi Sun-sin's victories at Hansan Island (1592) and Myeongnyang (1597); the turtle ship (geobukseon); Ming intervention; the war devastated the peninsula and weakened the Ming.

Manchu invasions: the First Manchu Invasion (1627, jeongmyo horan) and the Second Manchu Invasion (1636–1637, byeongja horan) forced Joseon to submit to the Qing; Crown Prince Sohyeon was taken hostage.

Late Joseon politics: Yeongjo (r. 1724–1776) and Jeongjo (r. 1776–1800) pursued the Tangpyeong policy (impartial appointments); Jeongjo built the Hwaseong Fortress (1794–1796); the Sedo (in-law) politics of the 19th century saw the Andong Kim and Pungyang Jo families dominate.

Key dates: 1392 Joseon founded; 1394 capital moved to Hanyang; 1446 Hangul promulgated; 1592–1598 Imjin War; 1636–1637 Second Manchu Invasion; 1800 Jeongjo dies; 1863 Gojong ascends the throne.

Social hierarchy: yangban (civil and military officials), chungin (middle people: technical officials, interpreters, physicians), commoners (sangmin), and base people (cheonmin: slaves, butchers, shamans, gisaeng); the yangban monopoly on office was reinforced by the gwageo.

Land and taxation: the jeonsigwa (land allotment) system gave officials land; the daedong law (1608, 1708 nationwide) replaced tribute with a uniform land tax; the gyunyeok law (1750) equalized military service tax; the hopo (household cloth tax) was levied on commoners.

Agriculture and commerce: the introduction of transplanted rice cultivation (mosim) in the 17th–18th centuries raised yields; commercial farming and the growth of local markets (jangsi) expanded; the pojeon (cloth money) and later the sangpyeong tongbo (metal coin, 1633) circulated.

Culture: the sijo and gasa poetic forms flourished; pansori developed in the late Joseon; the first Korean novel, Heungbujeon and Chunhyangjeon, circulated; Kim Hong-do (Danwon) and Shin Yun-bok (Hyewon) painted genre scenes.

Science and technology: Jang Yeong-sil created the water clock (Jagyeongnu, 1434) and sundial (Angbuilgu); Heo Jun compiled Dongui Bogam (1613); Jeong Yak-yong (Dasan) wrote on administrative reform and designed the Hwaseong Fortress.

Silhak (Practical Learning): scholars such as Yu Hyeong-won, Yi Ik (Seongho), Jeong Yak-yong, and Kim Jeong-ho (Daedong Yeojido map, 1861) emphasized practical statecraft, geography, and reform.

Religion and thought: Neo-Confucianism was orthodox; Buddhism was restricted but survived; Catholicism (Seohak) entered in the 18th century and was persecuted (Sinyu Persecution 1801, Gihae Persecution 1839); Donghak (Eastern Learning) was founded by Choe Je-u in 1860.

Family and gender: the patrilineal clan system (munjung) and the compilation of genealogies (jokbo) became widespread; the naeoe (primary wife/secondary wife) distinction determined legitimacy; women's remarriage was prohibited for yangban widows.

Opening of ports: the Treaty of Ganghwa (1876) opened Busan, Wonsan, and Incheon to Japanese trade and granted extraterritoriality; subsequent treaties with the US (1882, Treaty of Chemulpo), Britain (1883), Germany (1883), Russia (1884), and France (1886) followed.

Imo Incident (1882): soldiers revolted against the new Japanese-style army and the government; Heungseon Daewongun briefly returned to power; the Qing sent troops and stationed forces in Korea.

Gapsin Coup (1884): the Gaehwa (Enlightenment) faction led by Kim Ok-gyun staged a coup with Japanese support; it lasted three days before Chinese forces suppressed it; the Tianjin Convention (1885) between Qing and Japan required prior notification of troop deployments.

Donghak Peasant Revolution (1894): led by Jeon Bong-jun; the government requested Qing troops; Japan also sent troops, leading to the Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895); the Gabo Reforms (1894–1896) abolished the gwageo, established a cabinet system, and ended the slave system.

Eulmi Incident (1895): Japanese agents assassinated Queen Min (Empress Myeongseong) in Gyeongbokgung; the Agwan Pacheon (Korea royal refuge at the Russian legation, 1896–1897) followed; the Korean Empire (Daehan Jeguk) was proclaimed in 1897.

Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) and the Eulsa Treaty (1905): Japan obtained control of Korea's foreign affairs; the Hague Secret Emissary Affair (1907) protested the treaty; Gojong was forced to abdicate in 1907.

Japanese protectorate and annexation: the Jeongmi Seven Treaty (1907) gave Japan control of internal administration; the Korean army was disbanded in 1907, triggering the Righteous Army (uibyeong) uprisings; Korea was annexed in 1910.

Reform movements: the Gwangmu Reform (1897–1907) under Gojong included land surveys, currency reform, and modern schools; the Independence Club (Dongnip Hyeophoe, 1896–1898) advocated popular sovereignty and a constitutional monarchy.

Colonial administration: the Government-General of Korea (Chosen Sotokufu) was headed by a Japanese governor-general with military and legislative authority; the Japanese Resident-General (Ito Hirobumi) was assassinated by An Jung-geun at Harbin in 1909.

Land and economic control: the Land Survey (1910–1918) registered land and dispossessed many peasants; the Company Ordinance (1910) restricted Korean-owned enterprises; the Rice Production Increase Plan (1920s) extracted rice for Japan.

Cultural rule (bunka seiji): after the March First Movement (1919), Governor-General Saito Makoto introduced limited cultural concessions; the Korean language was still restricted, and the colonial police and censorship persisted.

March First Movement (1919): peaceful demonstrations demanding independence began on March 1, 1919; the Japanese response killed thousands; the Korean Provisional Government was established in Shanghai in April 1919 and led by Syngman Rhee (president) and Kim Gu (later).

Independence movements: the Righteous Army (uibyeong) continued after 1910; the Battle of Cheongsanri (1920) was a Korean independence army victory over Japanese forces in Manchuria; the Korean Independence Army (Daehan Gwangbokgun) and the Korean Volunteer Corps operated in China.

Communist and labor movements: the Korean Communist Party was founded in 1925; the General Association of Korean Laborers (Choson Nodong Chongdongmaeng) was formed in 1924; the Gwangju Student Movement (1929) protested colonial discrimination.

Wartime mobilization: the National Mobilization Law (1938) and the Korean Volunteer Soldier System (1938) conscripted Koreans; the Japanese military comfort women system (ianfu) forced women into sexual slavery; forced labor and conscription expanded during the Pacific War (1941–1945).

Cultural resistance: the Korean Language Society (Joseoneo Hakhoe) compiled the Korean dictionary; the March First Movement inspired the June 10th Movement (1926) and the Gwangju Student Movement; the Korean independence activist Yun Bong-gil bombed a Japanese ceremony in Shanghai in 1932.

End of colonial rule: Japan surrendered on August 15, 1945; the Korean peninsula was divided at the 38th parallel by Soviet and US forces; the Moscow Conference (December 1945) proposed a trusteeship, which triggered the anti-trusteeship movement.

Division and occupation: Soviet forces entered north of the 38th parallel in August 1945; US forces occupied the south; the Moscow Conference (December 1945) proposed a five-year trusteeship; the anti-trusteeship movement led by Syngman Rhee and Kim Gu opposed it.

South Korean state: the Republic of Korea was proclaimed on August 15, 1948, with Syngman Rhee as president; the National Security Law was enacted in 1948; the Jeju Uprising (1948–1949) and the Yeosu-Suncheon Rebellion (1948) were suppressed with heavy casualties.

North Korean state: the Democratic People's Republic of Korea was proclaimed on September 9, 1948, with Kim Il-sung as premier; Soviet and Chinese support shaped its early institutions.

Korean War (1950–1953): North Korean forces invaded on June 25, 1950; the UN Security Council authorized a UN force (US-led) in the absence of the Soviet Union; the Incheon Landing (September 1950) reversed the tide; Chinese intervention (October 1950) pushed UN forces back; the armistice was signed at Panmunjom on July 27, 1953, with no peace treaty.

Syngman Rhee era (1948–1960): the April 19 Revolution (1960) forced Rhee's resignation after the rigged March 15 election; the First Republic ended; the Second Republic under Yun Bo-seon and Chang Myon lasted less than a year.

Military regimes: Park Chung-hee seized power in the May 16 coup (1961); the Third Republic (1963–1972) and the Yushin Constitution (1972) established authoritarian rule; Park was assassinated in 1979; Chun Doo-hwan seized power in the December 12 coup (1979) and the Gwangju Democratization Movement (May 1980) was violently suppressed.

Democratization: the June 1987 Democratic Struggle (6.10 Hangjaeng) forced the June 29 Declaration (1987), which introduced direct presidential elections; Roh Tae-woo was elected in 1987; the 1987 Constitution remains in force.

Inter-Korean relations: the Korean War armistice; the July 4 North-South Joint Statement (1972); the 2000 and 2007 inter-Korean summits; the Sunshine Policy (1998–2008) under Kim Dae-jung and Roh Moo-hyun.

Economic development: the Five-Year Economic Development Plans began in 1962; the Saemaul Undong (New Village Movement) began in 1970; Korea joined the OECD in 1996; the 1997 Asian financial crisis led to an IMF bailout.

Demographics: South Korea's total fertility rate fell to 0.72 in 2023, among the world's lowest; the population is aging rapidly; the population peaked around 2020 and is projected to decline; North Korea's population is roughly 26 million.

Economy: Korea's GDP is among the world's top 15; major exports include semiconductors, automobiles, and petrochemicals; the chaebol (family-controlled conglomerates) such as Samsung, Hyundai, SK, and LG dominate the economy; Korea joined the OECD in 1996.

Labor and welfare: the 40-hour workweek was introduced in 2004; the minimum wage is set annually; the National Pension Service was established in 1988; the National Health Insurance system provides universal coverage.

Education: the college entrance exam (Suneung) shapes secondary education; the high school equalization policy (1974) reduced elite high schools; private tutoring (hagwon) expenditure is among the highest in the OECD.

Culture: the Korean Wave (Hallyu) began in the late 1990s with K-dramas and K-pop; BTS and BLACKPINK achieved global success; Korean cinema gained international recognition (Parasite won the Best Picture Oscar in 2020).

Religion and society: Christianity (Protestant and Catholic) and Buddhism are the largest religions; Confucian values persist in family and workplace norms; the #MeToo movement and debates over gender equality have grown since 2018.

Politics and society: the Constitutional Court was established in 1988; the impeachment of President Park Geun-hye in 2017 led to her removal; the 2018 Panmunjom Declaration and 2018 Singapore Summit were inter-Korean and US-North Korea diplomatic milestones.

Environment and technology: Korea has invested heavily in nuclear power and renewable energy; the country has one of the world's highest internet penetration rates; the 2018 PyeongChang Winter Olympics showcased Korean soft power.

The Four Commanderies of Han (108 BCE): Lelang (Nangnang), Lintun (Imdun), Xuantu (Hyeondo), and Zhenfan (Jinbeon); Lelang lasted until 313 CE, when Goguryeo conquered it.

The Gwanggaeto Stele: erected in 414 CE at the tomb of Gwanggaeto in Jian; it records Goguryeo's military campaigns and is a key source for early Korean history.

Silla's bone-rank system (golpum): the highest rank was seonggol (sacred bone), followed by jingol (true bone); the system declined after the death of Queen Jindeok in 654, when the last seonggol ruler died.

The Hwarang: an elite youth corps in Silla; the monk Won-gwang's Five Secular Commandments (sesok ogye) guided their conduct.

Goryeo's central administration: the Three Departments (Sangsang, Munha, Cheonha) and the Six Ministries (I, Ho, Ye, Byeong, Hyeong, Gong); the Privy Council (Jaechubang) advised the king.

The gwageo examination: introduced in 958 under Gwangjong; it tested Confucian classics, literary composition, and technical subjects; it became the main route to office.

The Tripitaka Koreana: first carved in the 11th century and destroyed by the Mongols in 1232; recarved from 1236 to 1251 at Haeinsa; it is a UNESCO Memory of the World item.

The Jikji: printed in 1377 at Heungdeoksa; it is the world's oldest extant book printed with metal movable type.

The Gyeongguk Daejeon: completed in 1485 under Seongjong; it codified the administrative structure, land system, and criminal law.

The Seungjeongwon (Royal Secretariat) and the Uijeongbu (State Council) were the highest central organs; the Six Ministries (Yukjo) implemented policy.

The Imjin War's aftermath: the war devastated agriculture and population; the government introduced the daedong law (1608) to reform the tribute system.

The Tangpyeong policy: Yeongjo and Jeongjo appointed officials from both factions to balance power; it reduced factional strife but did not eliminate it.

The gwageo: the civil service examination tested Confucian classics and literary composition; it was the main route to yangban status.

The daedong law: introduced in 1608 in Gyeonggi and nationwide by 1708; it replaced tribute with a uniform land tax of 12 du per gyeol.

The sangpyeong tongbo: a metal coin first minted in 1633; it facilitated commercial transactions.

The Dongui Bogam: compiled by Heo Jun in 1613; it is a comprehensive medical text and a UNESCO Memory of the World item.

The Treaty of Ganghwa (1876): opened Busan, Wonsan, and Incheon; granted Japanese extraterritoriality; it was Korea's first modern treaty.

The Gabo Reforms (1894–1896): abolished the gwageo, established a cabinet system, ended the slave system, and reformed the military and education.

The Independence Club (1896–1898): advocated popular sovereignty, a constitutional monarchy, and modern education; it published the Independence Newspaper (Dongnip Sinmun).

The Korean Empire (1897–1910): proclaimed by Gojong; it pursued the Gwangmu Reform, including land surveys and currency reform.

The Land Survey (1910–1918): registered land ownership; many peasants lost land due to unclear titles and Japanese policies.

The Company Ordinance (1910): required Japanese government approval for Korean-owned companies; it restricted Korean economic activity.

The March First Movement (1919): peaceful demonstrations demanding independence; the Japanese response killed thousands; it led to the establishment of the Korean Provisional Government in Shanghai.

The Battle of Cheongsanri (1920): a Korean independence army victory over Japanese forces in Manchuria; it is a symbol of armed resistance.

The Moscow Conference (December 1945): proposed a five-year trusteeship for Korea; it triggered the anti-trusteeship movement in the south.

The Jeju Uprising (1948–1949): a rebellion on Jeju Island; it was suppressed with heavy casualties; it remains a contested historical memory.

The Korean War armistice (July 27, 1953): signed at Panmunjom; it established the Military Demarcation Line and the Demilitarized Zone; no peace treaty has been signed.

The June 29 Declaration (1987): announced by Roh Tae-woo; it accepted direct presidential elections and led to the 1987 Constitution.

The Five-Year Economic Development Plans: began in 1962; they promoted export-led industrialization and heavy industry.

The Saemaul Undong (1970): a rural development movement; it improved infrastructure and living standards in rural areas.

The 1997 Asian financial crisis: Korea received an IMF bailout; it led to corporate and financial restructuring.

The Korean Wave (Hallyu): began in the late 1990s with K-dramas and K-pop; it has expanded to global cultural influence.